Хеброн — разлика између измена

Након уништења [[Први храм|Првог храма]], већина јеврејских становника Хеброна прогнана је, а према конвенционалном мишљењу, <ref>{{harvnb|Carter|1999|pp=96–99}} Carter challenges this view on the grounds that it has no archeological support.</ref> неки истраживачи пронашли су трагове присутности [[Едом]]ита после 5. - 4. века пре нове ере, када је то подручје постало [[Ахеменидско царство|ахеменидска провинција]],<ref>{{harvnb|Lemaire|2006|p=419}}</ref> и услед освајања [[Александар Велики|Александра Великог]] Хеброн је током читавог [[Хеленистичка ера|хеленистичког доба]] био под утицајем Идумеје (како је ново подручје насељено Едомитима називано током [[Јехуд медината|персијског]], [[Istorija drevnog Izraela i Judeje|хеленистичког]] и [[Judeja (provincija)|римског доба]]), о чему сведоче натписи из тог раздобља на којима се налази име едомитског Бога [[Кос (бог)|Коса]].<ref>{{harvnb|Jericke|2003|p=19}}.</ref> Изгледа да су и Јевреји живели тамо од повратка из [[Вавилонско ропство|вавилонског ропства]].<ref>[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Nehemiah+11%3A25&version=NRSV Nehemiah 11:25]</ref> За време [[Јуда Макавеј|Макавејске побуне]] Хеброн је спалио и опљачкао [[Јуда Макавеј]] који се борио против Едомита 167. године пре нове ере.<ref>{{harvnb|Josephus|1860|p=334}} [[Josephus Flavius]], ''[[Antiquities of the Jews]]'', Bk. 12, ch.8, para.6.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Duke|2010|pp=93–94}} is sceptical.'This should be considered a raid on Hebron instead of a conquest based on subsequent events in the book of I Maccabees.'</ref> Изгледа да је град дуго одолевао [[Хасмонејци|Хасмонејској доминацији]], и све до [[Први римско-јеврејски рат|Првог римско-јеврејског рата]] сматран је за идумејски град.<ref>{{harvnb|Duke|2010|p=94}}</ref>

 

 

 

 

Hebron was one of the last cities of Palestine to fall to the Islamic invasion in the 7th century, possibly the reason why Hebron is not mentioned in any traditions of the Arab conquest.<ref>{{harvnb|Gil|1997|pp=56–57}} cites the late testimony of two monks, Eudes and Arnoul CE 1119–1120:'When they (the Muslims) came to Hebron they were amazed to see the strong and handsome structures of the walls and they could not find an opening through which to enter, then the Jews happened to come, who lived in the area under the former rule of the Greeks (that is the Byzantines), and they said to the Muslims: give us (a letter of security) that we may continue to live (in our places) under your rule (literally-amongst you) and permit us to build a synagogue in front of the entrance (to the city). If you will do this, we shall show you where you can break in. And it was so'.</ref> After the fall of the city, Jerusalem's conqueror, Caliph Omar ibn al-Khattab permitted Jewish people to return and to construct a small synagogue within the Herodian precinct.<ref>{{harvnb|Hiro|1999|p=166}}.</ref> When the [[Rashidun Caliphate]] established rule over Hebron in 638, they converted the Byzantine church at the site of Abraham's tomb into a mosque.<ref name="Scharfstein 124"/> It became an important station on the caravan trading route from Egypt, and also as a way-station for pilgrims making the yearly hajj from Damascus.<ref>{{harvnb|Büssow|2011|p=195}}</ref> Catholic bishop [[Arculf]] who visited the Holy Land during the [[Umayyad Chaliphate|Umayyad rule]] described the city as unfortified and poor. In his writings he also mentioned camel caravans transporting firewood from Hebron to Jerusalem, which implies there was a presence of Arab nomads in the region at that time.<ref>Yehoshua Frenkel, 2011, p.28–29</ref> Trade greatly expanded, in particular with [[Bedouin]]s in the [[Negev]] (''al-Naqab'') and the population to the east of the [[Dead Sea]] (''Baḥr Lūṭ''). According to Anton Kisa, Jews from Hebron (and [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]]) founded the [[Venice|Venetian]] glass-industry in the 9th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Forbes|1965|p=155}}, citing Anton Kisa et al.,''Das Glas im Altertum'', 1908.</ref> Islam did not view the town significant before the 10th-century, it being almost absent in Muslim literature of the period.<ref>{{harvnb|Gil|1997|pp=205}}</ref> Jerusalemite geographer [[al-Muqaddasi]], writing in 985 described the town as follows:<blockquote>Habra (Hebron) is the village of Abraham al-Khalil (the Friend of God)...Within it is a strong fortress...being of enormous squared stones. In the middle of this stands a dome of stone, built in Islamic times, over the sepulchre of Abraham. The tomb of Isaac lies forward, in the main building of the mosque, the tomb of Jacob to the rear; facing each prophet lies his wife. The enclosure has been converted into a mosque, and built around it are rest houses for the pilgrims, so that they adjoin the main edifice on all sides. A small water conduit has been conducted to them. All the countryside around this town for about half a stage has villages in every direction, with vineyards and grounds producing grapes and apples called Jabal Nahra...being fruit of unsurpassed excellence...Much of this fruit is dried, and sent to [[Egypt]].

 

[[Cairo Geniza|Geniza]] documents from this period refer only to "the graves of the patriarchs" and reveal there was an organised Jewish community in Hebron who had a synagogue near the tomb, and were occupied with accommodating Jewish pilgrims and merchants. During the [[Great Seljuq Empire|Seljuk period]], the community was headed by Saadia b. Abraham b. Nathan, who was known as the "''haver'' of the graves of the patriarchs."<ref>{{harvnb|Gil|1997|p=206}}</ref>

 

The [[Caliphate]] lasted in the area until 1099, when the Christian [[Crusade]]r [[Godfrey de Bouillon]] took Hebron and renamed it "Castellion Saint Abraham".<ref>{{harvnb|Robinson|Smith|1856|p=78}}:'The Castle of St. Abraham' was the generic Crusader name for Hebron.'</ref> It was designated capital of the southern district of the Crusader [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]<ref>Israel tourguide, Avraham Lewensohn, 1979. p. 222.</ref> and given, in turn,<ref>{{harvnb|Murray|2000|p=107}}</ref> as the fief of Saint Abraham, to [[Geldemar Carpenel|Geldemar Carpinel]], the bishop Gerard of Avesnes,<ref>{{harvnb|Runciman|1965a|p=307}}Runciman also (pp. 307–08) notes that Gerard of Avesnes was a knight from [[County of Hainaut|Hainault]] held hostage at [[Arsuf]], north of [[Jaffa]], who had been wounded by Godfrey's own forces during the siege of the port, and later returned by the Muslims to Godfrey as a token of good will.</ref> Hugh of Rebecques, Walter Mohamet and Baldwin of Saint Abraham. As a [[Franks|Frankish]] garrison of the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]], its defence was precarious being 'little more than an island in a Moslem ocean'.<ref>{{harvnb|Runciman|1965b|p=4}}</ref> The Crusaders converted the [[mosque]] and the [[synagogue]] into a church. In 1106, an Egyptian campaign thrust into southern Palestine and almost succeeded the following year in wresting Hebron back from the Crusaders under [[Baldwin I of Jerusalem]], who personally led the counter-charge to beat the Muslim forces off. In the year 1113 during the reign of [[Baldwin II of Jerusalem]], according to [[Ali ibn abi bakr al-Harawi|Ali of Herat]] (writing in 1173), a certain part over the cave of Abraham had given way, and "a number of Franks had made their entrance therein". And they discovered "(the bodies) of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob", "their shrouds having fallen to pieces, lying propped up against a wall...Then the King, after providing new shrouds, caused the place to be closed once more". Similar information is given in [[Ali ibn al-Athir|Ibn at Athir]]'s Chronicle under the year 1119; "In this year was opened the tomb of Abraham, and those of his two sons Isaac and Jacob ...Many people saw the Patriarch. Their limbs had nowise been disturbed, and beside them were placed lamps of gold and of silver."<ref>{{harvnb|Le Strange|1890|pp=317–18}} [[commons:File:Strange.317.jpg|p. 317]] and [[commons:File:Strange.318.jpg|p. 318]].</ref> The [[Damascus|Damascene]] nobleman and historian [[Ibn al-Qalanisi]] in his chronicle also alludes at this time to the discovery of [[relics]] purported to be those of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, a discovery which excited eager curiosity among all three communities in Palestine, Muslim, Jewish, and Christian.<ref>{{harvnb|Kohler|1896|pp=447ff.}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Runciman|1965b|p=319}}.</ref> Towards the end of the period of Crusader rule, in 1166 [[Maimonides]] visited Hebron and wrote,<blockquote>On Sunday, 9 Marheshvan (17 October), I left Jerusalem for Hebron to kiss the tombs of my ancestors in the Cave. On that day, I stood in the cave and prayed, praise be to God, (in gratitude) for everything.<ref>{{harvnb|Kraemer|2001|p=422}}.</ref></blockquote>

 

In 1244, the [[Khwarazmian dynasty#Mercenaries|Khwarazmians]] destroyed the town, but left the sanctuary untouched.<ref name="Salaville 1910 185"/>

 

In 1260, after [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk]] [[Sultan]] [[Baibars]] defeated the Mongol army, the [[minaret]]s were built onto the sanctuary. Six years later, while on pilgrimage to Hebron, Baibars promulgated an edict forbidding Christians and Jews from entering the sanctuary,<ref>{{harvnb|Micheau|2006|p=402}}</ref> and the climate became less tolerant of Jews and Christians than it had been under the prior [[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubid]] rule. The edict for the exclusion of Christians and Jews was not strictly enforced until the middle of the 14th-century and by 1490, not even Muslims were permitted to enter the caverns.<ref>{{harvnb|Murphy-O'Connor|1998|p=274}}.</ref>

 

Minute descriptions of Hebron were recorded in Stephen von Gumpenberg's Journal (1449), by [[Felix Fabri]] (1483) and by [[Mejr ed-Din]]<ref>{{harvnb|Robinson|Smith|1856|pp=440–42, n.1}}.</ref> It was in this period, also, that the [[Mamluk]] Sultan [[Qaitbay|Qa'it Bay]] revived the old custom of the Hebron "table of Abraham," and exported it as a model for his own ''[[madrasa]]'' in [[Medina]].<ref>{{harvnb|Singer|2002|p=148}}</ref> This became an immense charitable establishment near the [[Haram]], distributing daily some 1,200 loaves of bread to travellers of all faiths.<ref>{{harvnb|Robinson|Smith|1856|p=458}}.</ref> The Italian rabbi [[Obadiah ben Abraham Bartenura]] writing of Machpelah around 1490 wrote: <blockquote>I was in the Cave of Machpelah, over which the mosque has been built; and the Arabs hold the place in high honour. All the Kings of the Arabs come here to repeat their prayers, but neither a Jew nor an Arab may enter the Cave itself, where the real graves of the Patriarchs are; the Arabs remain above, and let down burning torches into it through a window, for they keep a light always burning there. . Bread and lentil, or some other kind of pulse (seeds of peas or beans), is distributed (by the Muslims) to the poor every day without distinction of faith, and this is done in honour of Abraham.<ref>{{harvnb|Berger|2012|p=246.}}.</ref></blockquote>

 

 

The expansion of the [[Ottoman Empire]] along the southern Mediterranean coast under sultan [[Selim I]] coincided with the establishment of [[Spanish Inquisition|Inquisition]] commissions by the [[Catholic Monarchs]] in Spain, which ended centuries of the Iberian ''convivencia'' (coexistence). The ensuing [[Alhambra Decree|expulsions of the Jews]] drove many [[Sephardi Jews]] into the Ottoman provinces, and a slow influx of Jews to the Holy Land took place, with some notable Sephardi [[Kabbalah|kabbalists]] settling in Hebron.<ref>{{harvnb|Idel|2005|p=131}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Green|2007|pp=xv–xix}}.</ref> Over the following two centuries, there was a significant migration of Bedouin tribal groups from the Arabian Peninsula into Palestine. Many settled in three separate villages in the Wādī al Khalīl, and their descendants later formed the majority of Hebron.<ref name="Büssow 2011 195">{{harvnb|Büssow|2011|p=195}}.</ref>

During the Ottoman period, the dilapidated state of the patriarchs' tombs was restored to a semblance of sumptuous dignity.<ref>{{harvnb|Conder|1830|p=198}}.</ref> Ali Bey, one of the few foreigners to gain access, reported in 1807 that,<blockquote>all the sepulchres of the patriarchs are covered with rich carpets of green silk, magnificently embroidered with gold; those of the wives are red, embroidered in like manner. The sultans of Constantinople furnish these carpets, which are renewed from time to time. Ali Bey counted nine, one over the other, upon the sepulchre of Abraham.<ref>{{harvnb|Conder|1830|p=198}}. The source was a manuscript, ''The Travels of Ali Bey'', vol. ii, pp. 232–33.</ref></blockquote> Hebron also became known throughout the Arab world for its glass production, abetted by Bedouin trade networks which brought up minerals from the Dead Sea, and the industry is mentioned in the books of 19th century [[Western culture|Western]] travelers to Palestine. For example, [[Ulrich Jasper Seetzen]] noted during his travels in Palestine in 1808–09 that 150 persons were employed in the glass industry in Hebron,<ref>{{harvnb|Schölch|1993|p=161}}.</ref> based on 26 kilns.<ref>{{harvnb|Büssow|2011|p=198}}</ref> In 1844, Robert Sears wrote that Hebron's population of 400 Arab families "manufactured glass lamps, which are exported to [[Egypt]]. Provisions are abundant, and there is a considerable number of shops."<ref>{{harvnb|Sears|1844|p=260}}.</ref> Early 19th century travellers also remarked on Hebron's flourishing agriculture. Apart from glassware, it was a major exporter of ''dibse'', grape sugar,<ref>{{harvnb|Shaw|1808|p=144}}</ref> from the famous Dabookeh grapestock characteristic of Hebron.<ref>{{harvnb|Finn|1868|p=39}}.</ref>

 

 

A [[1834 Arab revolt in Palestine|Peasant Arab revolt]] broke out in April 1834 when [[Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt]] announced he would recruit troops from the local Muslim population.<ref>{{harvnb|Krämer|2011|p=68}}</ref> Hebron, headed by its [[nāẓir|nazir]] Abd ar-Rahman Amr, declined to supply its quota of conscripts for the army and suffered badly from the Egyptian campaign to crush the uprising. The town was invested and when its defences fell on 4 August it was sacked by Ibrahim Pasha's army.<ref>{{harvnb|Kimmerling|Migdal|2003|pp=6–11, esp. p. 8}}</ref><ref name="Robinson 88">{{harvnb|Robinson|Smith|1856|p=88}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Schwarz|1850|p=403}}.</ref> An estimated 500 Muslims from Hebron were killed in the attack and some 750 were conscripted. 120 youths were abducted and put at the disposal of Egyptian army officers. Most of the Muslim population managed to flee beforehand to the hills. Many Jews fled to Jerusalem, but during the general pillage of the town [[1834 Hebron massacre|at least five were killed]].<ref>{{harvnb|Schwarz|1850|pp=398–99}}.</ref>

In 1838, the total population was estimated at 10,000.<ref name="Robinson 88"/> When the Government of Ibrahim Pasha fell in 1841, the local clan-head Abd ar-Rahman Amr once again resumed the reins of power as the Sheik of Hebron. Due to his extortionate demands for cash from the local population, most of the Jewish population fled to Jerusalem.<ref>{{harvnb|Schwarz|1850|pp=398–400}}</ref> In 1846, the Ottoman Governor-in-chief of Jerusalem (''serasker''), [[Kıbrıslı Mehmed Emin Pasha]], waged a campaign to subdue rebellious sheiks in the Hebron area, and while doing so, allowed his troops to sack the town. Though it was widely rumoured that he secretly protected Abd ar-Rahman,<ref>{{harvnb|Finn|1878|pp=287ff}}.</ref> the latter was deported together with other local leaders (such as Muslih al-'Azza of [[Bayt Jibrin]]), but he managed to return to the area in 1848.<ref>{{harvnb|Schölch|1993|pp=234–35}}.</ref>

 

 

By 1850, the Jewish population consisted of 45–60 Sephardi families, some 40 born in the town, and a 30-year-old Ashkenazi community of 50 families, mainly Polish and Russian,<ref>{{harvnb|Schwarz|1850|p=401}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wilson|1847|pp=355–381, 372}}:The rabbi of the Ashkenazi community, who said they numbered 60 mainly Polish and Russian emigrants, professed no knowledge of the Sephardim in Hebron (p.377).</ref> the [[Chabad|Lubavitch Hasidic]] movement having established a community in 1823.<ref>{{harvnb|Sicker|1999|p=6}}.</ref> The ascendency of Ibrahim Pasha devastated for a time the local glass industry for, aside from the loss of life, his plan to build a Mediterranean fleet led to severe logging in Hebron's forests, and firewood for the kilns grew rarer. At the same time, Egypt began importing cheap European glass, the rerouting of the hajj from Damascus through Transjordan eliminated Hebron as a staging point, and the Suez canal (1869) dispensed with caravan trade. The consequence was a steady decline in the local economy.<ref>{{harvnb|Büssow|2011|pp=198–99}}.</ref>

 

Late in the 19th century the production of [[Hebron glass]] declined due to competition from imported European glass-ware, however, the products of Hebron continued to be sold, particularly among the poorer populace and travelling Jewish traders from the city.<ref>{{harvnb|Schölch|1993|pp=161–62}} quoting David Delpuget ''Les Juifs d´Alexandrie, de Jaffa et de Jérusalem en 1865'', Bordeaux, 1866, p. 26.</ref> At the [[Weltausstellung 1873 Wien|World Fair of 1873 in Vienna]], Hebron was represented with glass ornaments. A report from the French consul in 1886 suggests that glass-making remained an important source of income for Hebron, with four factories earning 60,000 francs yearly.<ref>{{harvnb|Schölch|1993|pp=161–62}}.</ref> While the economy of other cities in Palestine was based on solely on trade, Hebron was the only city in Palestine that combined agriculture, livestock herding and trade, including the manufacture of glassware and processing of hides. This was because the most fertile lands were situated within the city limits.<ref name="Taraki Giacaman">{{harvnb| Tarākī|2006|pp=12–14}}</ref> The city, nevertheless, was considered unproductive and had a reputation "being an asylum for the poor and the spiritual."<ref name="Taraki Giacaman2">{{harvnb|Tarākī|2006|pp=12–14}}: "Throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and well into the twentieth, Hebron was a peripheral, "borderline" community, attracting poor itinerant peasants and those with Sufi inclinations from its environs. The tradition of ''shorabat Sayyidna Ibrahim'', a soup kitchen surviving into the present day and supervised by the ''awqaf'', and that of the Sufi ''zawaya'' gave the city a reputation for being an asylum for the poor and the spiritual, cementing the poor cast of a town supporting the unproductive and the needy (Ju'beh 2003). This reputation was bound to shed a conservative, dull cast on the city, a place not known for high living, dynamism, or innovativeness."</ref> Differing in architectural style from Nablus, whose wealthy merchants built handsome houses, Hebron's main characteristic was its semi-urban, semi-peasant dwellings.<ref name="Taraki Giacaman"/>

Hebron was 'deeply Bedouin and Islamic',<ref>{{harvnb|Kimmerling|Migdal|2003|p=41}}</ref> and 'bleakly conservative' in its religious outlook,<ref>{{harvnb|Gorenberg|2007|p=145}}.</ref> with a strong tradition of hostility to Jews.<ref>{{harvnb|Laurens|1999|p=508}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Renan|1864|p=93}} remarked of the town that it was 'one of the bulwarks of Semitic ideas, in their most austere form.'</ref> It had a reputation for religious zeal in jealously protecting its sites from Jews and Christians, but both the Jewish and Christian communities were apparently well integrated into the town's economic life.<ref name="Büssow 2011 195"/> As a result of its commercial decline, tax revenues diminished significantly, and the Ottoman government, avoiding meddling in complex local politics, left Hebron relatively undisturbed, to become 'one of the most autonomous regions in late Ottoman Palestine.'.<ref>{{harvnb|Büssow|2011|p=199}}.</ref>

 

 

=== Доба Британског мандата над Палестином ===

 

Током 1929. муслимански екстремисти извршили су масакр локалног јеврејског становништва. У масакру је страдало 67 цивила, а преостало јеврејско становништво избегло је из града.{{sfn|Segev|2000|pp=316}} Након [[Шестодневни рат|Шестодневног рата]] 1967, и израелског заузимања Хеброна, јеврејско присуство у граду је обновљено.

At this time following attempts by the [[Lithuania]]n government to draft yeshiva students into the army, the Lithuanian [[Hebron Yeshiva]] (Knesses Yisroel) relocated to Hebron, after consultations between Rabbi [[Nosson Tzvi Finkel (Slabodka)|Nosson Tzvi Finkel]], [[Yechezkel Sarna]] and [[Moshe Mordechai Epstein]].<ref>{{harvnb|Wein|1993|pp=138–39}},</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Bauman|1994|p=22}}</ref> and by 1929 had attracted some 265 students from Europe and the United States.<ref>{{harvnb|Krämer|2011|p=232}}.</ref> The majority of the Jewish population lived on the outskirts of Hebron along the roads to Be'ersheba and Jerusalem, renting homes owned by Arabs, a number of which were built for the express purpose of housing Jewish tenants, with a few dozen within the city around the synagogues.<ref>{{harvnb|Segev|2001|p=318}}.</ref> During the [[1929 Hebron massacre]], Arab rioters slaughtered some 64 to 67 Jewish men, women and children<ref>{{harvnb|Kimmerling|Migdal|2003|p=92}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=NyopAQAAMAAJ Post-holocaust and anti-semitism – Issues 40–75 – Page 35] Merkaz ha-Yerushalmi le-ʻinyene tsibur u-medinah, Temple University. Center for Jewish Community Studies – 2006: “After the 1929 riots in Mandatory Palestine, the non-Jewish French writer [[Albert Londres]] asked him why the Arabs had murdered the old, pious Jews in Hebron and Safed, with whom they had no quarrel. The mayor answered: "ln a way you behave like in a war. You don't kill what you want. You kill what you find. Next time they will all be killed, young and old." Later on, Londres spoke again to the mayor and tested him ironically by saying: "You cannot kill all the Jews. There are 150,000 of them." [[Raghib al-Nashashibi|Nashashibi]] answered "in a soft voice, 'Oh no, it'll take two days.”</ref> and wounded 60, and Jewish homes and synagogues were ransacked; 435 Jews survived by virtue of the shelter and assistance offered them by their Arab neighbours, who hid them.<ref>{{harvnb|Segev|2001|pp=325–26}}: ''The Zionist Archives preserves lists of Jews who were saved by Arabs; one list contains 435 names.''</ref> Some Hebron Arabs, including Ahmad Rashid al-Hirbawi, president of Hebron chamber of commerce, supported the return of Jews after the massacre.<ref>[https://newrepublic.com/article/books/the-tangled-truth The Tangled Truth, Benny Morris]</ref> Two years later, 35 families moved back into the ruins of the Jewish quarter, but on the eve of the [[1936–39 Arab revolt in Palestine|Palestinian Arab revolt]] (April 23, 1936) the British Government decided to move the Jewish community out of Hebron as a precautionary measure to secure its safety. The sole exception was the 8th generation Hebronite Ya'akov ben Shalom Ezra, who processed dairy products in the city, blended in well with its social landscape and resided there under the protection of friends. In November 1947, in anticipation of the [[United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine|UN partition vote]], the Ezra family closed its shop and left the city.<ref>{{harvnb|Campos|2007|pp=56–57}}</ref> Yossi Ezra has since tried to regain his family's property through the Israeli courts.<ref name="Levinsohn2011" />

 

At the beginning of the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War]], Egypt took control of Hebron. Between May and October, Egypt and Jordan tussled for dominance in Hebron and its environs. Both countries appointed military governors in the town, hoping to gain recognition from Hebron officials. The Egyptians managed to persuade the pro-Jordanian mayor to support their rule, at least superficially, but local opinion turned against them when they imposed taxes. Villagers surrounding Hebron resisted and skirmishes broke out in which some were killed.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?isbn=1860649890 ''The Road to Jerusalem: Glubb Pasha, Palestine and the Jews''], Benny Morris – 2003. pp. 186–87.</ref> By late 1948, part of the Egyptian forces from Bethlehem to Hebron had been cut off from their lines of supply and [[John Bagot Glubb|Glubb Pasha]] sent 350 [[Arab Legion]]naires and an armoured car unit to Hebron to reinforce them there. When the [[1949 Armistice Agreements|Armistice]] was signed, the city thus fell under [[Rule of the West Bank and East Jerusalem by Jordan|Jordanian military control]]. The armistice agreement between Israel with Jordan intended to allow Israeli Jewish pilgrims to visit Hebron, but, as Jews of all nationalities were forbidden by Jordan into the country, this did not occur.<ref>Thomas A Idinopulos, Jerusalem, 1994, p. 300, "So severe were the Jordanian restrictions against Jews gaining access to the old city that visitors wishing to cross over from west Jerusalem...had to produce a baptismal certificate."</ref><ref>Armstrong, Karen, Jerusalem: One City, Three Faiths, 1997, "Only clergy, diplomats, UN personnel, and a few privileged tourists were permitted to go from one side to the other. The Jordanians required most tourists to produce baptismal certificates—to prove they were not Jewish ... ."</ref>

 

Although a significant number of people relocated to Jerusalem from Hebron during the Jordanian period,<ref>[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=J5U3AAAAIAAJ ''The Encyclopaedia of Islam''], Sir H. A. R. Gibb 1980. p. 337.</ref> Hebron itself saw a considerable increase in population with 35,000 settling in the town.<ref name="Efrat 1984 192">{{harvnb|Efrat|1984|p=192}}</ref> During this period, signs of the previous Jewish presence in Hebron were removed.<ref>{{harvnb|Auerbach|2009|p=79}}: "Under Jordanian rule, the last vestiges of a Jewish historical presence in Hebron were obliterated. The Avraham Avinu synagogue, already in ruins, was razed; a pen for goats, sheep, and donkeys was built on the site."</ref>

 

 

After the [[Six-Day War]] in June 1967, Israel [[Israeli occupation of the West Bank|occupied]] Hebron along with the rest of the [[West Bank]], establishing a [[Israeli Military Governorate|military government]] to rule the area. In an attempt to reach a [[land for peace]] deal, [[Yigal Allon]] proposed that Israel annex 45% of the West Bank and return the remainder to Jordan.<ref>{{harvnb|Gorenberg|2007|pp=80–83}}.</ref> According to the [[Allon Plan]], the city of Hebron would lie in Jordanian territory, and in order to determine Israel's own border, Allon suggested building a Jewish settlement adjacent to Hebron.<ref>{{harvnb|Gorenberg|2007|pp=138–39}}</ref> [[David Ben-Gurion]] also considered that Hebron was the one sector of the conquered territories that should remain under Jewish control and be open to Jewish settlement.<ref>{{harvnb|Sternhell|1999|p=333}}</ref> Apart from its symbolic message to the international community that Israel's rights in Hebron were, according to Jews, inalienable,<ref>{{harvnb|Sternhell|1999|p=337}}:'In building this new Jewish town, one was sending a message to the international community: for the Jews, the sites connected with Jewish history are inalienable, and if later, for circumstantial reasons, the state of Israel is obliged to give one or another of them up, the step is not considered final.'</ref> settling Hebron also had theological significance in some quarters.<ref>{{harvnb|Gorenberg|2007|p=151}}: 'David's kingdom was a model for the [[Apocalyptic literature|messianic kingdom]]. David began in Hebron, so settling Hebron would lead to final redemption.'</ref> For some, the capture of Hebron by Israel had unleashed a messianic fervor.<ref>{{harvnb|Segev|2008|p=698}}: "Hebron was considered a holy city; the massacre of Jews there in 1929 was imprinted on [[national memory]] along with the great pogroms of Eastern Europe. The messianic fervor that characterized the Hebron settlers was more powerful than the awakening that led people to settle in East Jerusalem: while Jerusalem had already been annexed, the future of Hebron was still unclear."</ref>

 

 

Immediately after the 1967 war, mayor al-Ja'bari had unsuccessfully promoted the creation of an autonomous Palestinian entity in the West Bank, and by 1972, he was advocating for a confederal arrangement with Jordan instead. al-Ja'bari nevertheless consistently fostered a conciliatory policy towards Israel.<ref>{{cite book|author=Charles Reynell|title=The Economist|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cxVXAAAAYAAJ|volume=Volume 242|year=1972|publisher=Economist Newspaper Limited}}</ref> He was ousted by Fahad Qawasimi in the 1976 mayoral election, which marked a shift in support towards pro-PLO nationalist leaders.<ref>{{harvnb|Mattar|2005|p=255}}</ref>

 

Supporters of Jewish settlement within Hebron see their program as the reclamation of an important heritage dating back to Biblical times, which was dispersed or, it is argued, stolen by Arabs after the massacre of 1929.<ref>{{harvnb|Bouckaert|2001|p=14}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Rubenberg|2003|pp=162–63)}}</ref> The purpose of settlement is to return to the 'land of our forefathers',<ref>{{harvnb|Kellerman|1993|p=89}}</ref> and the Hebron model of reclaiming sacred sites in Palestinian territories has pioneered a pattern for settlers in Bethlehem and Nablus.<ref>{{harvnb|Rubenberg|2003|p=187}}.</ref> Many reports, foreign and Israeli, are sharply critical of the behaviour of Hebronite settlers.<ref>{{harvnb| Bovard|2004|p=265}}, citing Charles A. Radin, “A Top Israeli Says Settlers Incited Riot in Hebron,” [[Boston Globe]], July 31, 2002;Amos Harel and Jonathan Lis, “Minister’s Aide Calls Hebron Riots a ‘Pogrom’,’ [[Haaretz]] 31 July 2002. p. 409, notes 55, 56.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|The Scotsman|2002}}.</ref>

 

Sheik Farid Khader heads the Ja’bari tribe, consisting of some 35,000 people, which is considered one of the most important tribes in Hebron. For years, members of the Ja'bari tribe were the mayors of Hebron. Khader regularly meets with settlers and Israeli government officials and is a strong opponent of both the concept of Palestinian State and the Palestinian Authority itself. Khader believes that Jews and Arabs must learn to coexist.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.israelhayom.com/site/newsletter_article.php?id=1713 |title=Jewish presence in Hebron is an indisputable historical fact |publisher=Israel Hayom |date=2011-11-04 |accessdate=2013-03-26}}</ref>

 

 

Following the 1995 [[Oslo Agreement]] and subsequent 1997 [[Hebron Agreement]], Palestinian cities were placed under the exclusive jurisdiction of the [[Palestinian Authority]], with the exception of Hebron,<ref name="Alimi 2013 178"/> which was split into two sectors: H1 is controlled by the Palestinian Authority and H2 – which includes the [[Old City of Hebron]] – remained under the military control of Israel.<ref name="Kimmerling 2003 443">{{harvnb|Kimmerling|Migdal|2003|p=443}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/c7d7b824004ff5c585256ae700543ebc?OpenDocument |title=Protocol Concerning the Redeployment in Hebron |date=January 17, 1997 |work=United Nations Information System on the Question of Palestine |publisher=Non-UN document. |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071024142822/http://domino.un.org/unispal.nsf/0/c7d7b824004ff5c585256ae700543ebc?opendocument |archivedate=October 24, 2007 }}</ref> Around 120,000 Palestinians live in H1, while around 30,000 Palestinians along with around 700 Israelis remain under Israeli military control in H2. {{As of|2009}}, a total of 86 Jewish families lived in Hebron.<ref>{{cite web|last=Gurkow |first=Lazer |url=http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/624279/jewish/A-Visit-to-Hebron.htm |title=Chabad.org |publisher=Chabad.org |date= |accessdate=2009-11-12}}</ref> The IDF ([[Israel Defense Forces]]) may not enter H1 unless under Palestinian escort. Palestinians cannot approach areas where settlers live without special permits from the IDF.<ref name=hebron-wp/> The Jewish settlement is widely considered to be illegal by the international community, although the Israeli government disputes this.<ref name="BBC_GC4">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1682640.stm |title=The Geneva Convention |work=BBC News |date=10 December 2009 |accessdate=27 September 2011 }}</ref>