Hazari
Hazari su bili nomadsko turkijsko pleme, koje je stvorilo politički entitet koji je za vrijeme svog postojanja bio najmoćnija zemlja proizašla od bivšeg Zapadnog turkijskog kaganata.[1] Nalazeći se na glavnoj arteriji trgovine između sjeverne Evrope i jugozapadne Azije, Hazarija je postala jedna od najistaknutijih trgovačkih imperija srednjovjekovnog svijeta, upravljajući zapadnom rutom Puta svile i igrajući ključnu komercijalnu ulogu kao raskrsnica između Kine, Srednjeg istoka i Kijevske Rusije.[2][3] Tokom otprilike tri vijeka (oko 650—965) Hazari su dominirali prostranim područjem koje se protezalo od Volško-donske stepe do istočnog Krima i Sjevernog Kavkaza.[4]
Hazarija je dugo služila kao tampon država između Vizantijskog carstva na jednoj strani i nomada iz sjevernih stepa i Omejadskog kalifata na drugoj; kasnije je služila kao zastupnik Vizantije protiv Sasadinskog carstva. Savez je prestao da postoji oko 900. godine kada je Vizantija počela da ohrabljuje Alane da napadaju Hazariju i oslabe njene posjede na Krimu i Kavkazu, pokušavajući da pribave savez sa rastućom moći Rusa na sjeveru, koje su željeli da prevedu u hrišćanstvo.[5] Između 965. i 969. godine, knez Kijevske Rusije Svjatoslav I osvojio je prijestolnicu Itilu i uništio hazarsku državu.
Određivanje porijekla i prirode Hazara blisko je povezano sa teorijama o njihovom jeziku, ali to stvara složene poteškoće jer ne postoje hazarski zapisi na maternjem jeziku, a država je bila poliglotska i polietnička. Smatra se da je izvorna religija Hazara bio tengrizam, kao i kod sjevernokavkaskih Huna i ostalih turkijskih naroda.[6] Polietničke stanovništvo Hazarskog kaganata činilo je multikonfesionalni mozaik pagana, tengriza, judaista, hrišćana i muslimana.[7] Vladajuća elita Hazara je prema Jehudi Haleviju i Ibn Daudu prešla na rabinski judaizma u 8. vijeku,[8] ali obim prelaska ostalog stanovništva na judaizam u Kaganatu ostaje neizvjestan
Moguće hazarsko porijeklo dovodi se u vezu sa slovenskim judajskim Subotnicima, Buharskim Jevrejima, muslimanskim Kumicima i Kazasima, Donskim kozacima, turkijskim Krimčacima i njihovim krimskim susjedima Karaimima, zatim moldavskim Čangima, Gorskim Jevrejima i drugim.[9][10][11] Krajem 19. vijeka, pojavila se teorije prema kojoj je jezgro današnjih Aškenaskih Jevreja genetski vodi porijeklo od hipotetske hazarske jevrejske dijaspore koja se sa prostora današnje zapadne Rusije i Ukrajine presilila u današnju Francusku i Njemačku. Ove teorije nailaze na povremenu podršku, ali većina naučnika je smatra skeptičnom.[12][13] Ova teorija se povremeno povezuje sa antisemitizmom[14] i anticionizmom.[15]
Etimologija uredi
Nemet Giula, prema Gomboc Zoltanu, izvodi Xazar iz hipotetskog *Qasar koji odražava turkijski korijen qaz- („lutati, skitati”) što je hipotetski samoglasnička varijanta sveturkijske riječi kez-.[16] Na fragmentu Tariatskog natpisa Ujguskog kaganata nalazi se oblik Qasar, iako je nepoznato da li to predstavlja lično ili plemensko ime, postepeno se javljaju druge hipoteze. Luj Bazen izvodi iz turkijskog korijena qas- („tiranisati, ugnjetavati, tlačiti”) na osnovu fonetske sličnosti sa ujgurskim plemenskim imenom, Kasar.[17] Andraš Ronataš naziv povezuje sa kesarom, pahlavskom transkripcijom rimske titule cezar..[18]
Daglas Danlop pokušao je da poveže kineski termin za Hazare sa jednim od plemenskih imena Tokuz Oguz Ujgura, prvenstveno sa Gésà.[19][20] Zamjerke su bile to što Gesa/Qasar nije bilo plemensko ime nego prezime poglavice Siraki plemena Tokuz Oguz Ujgura i da je na srednjokineskom etnonim „Hazari”, uvijek išao uz riječ Tūjué (kin: 突厥可薩部; pin: Tūjué Kěsà bù; kin: 突厥曷薩; pin: Tūjué Hésà), što je transkribovano znakovima razčitim od onih koji se koriste za korijen Qa- u ujgurskoj riječi Qasar.[21][22][23]
Nakon preobraćanja Hazara na judaizam zabilježeno je da su usvojili hebrejsko pismo,[24] i da su vjerovatno, iako su govorili turkijskim jezikom, hazarske kancelarije pod judaizmom vjerovatno međusobno komunicirale na hebrejskom.[25] U Expositio in Matthaeum Evangelistam, Gazari, vjerovatno Hazari, nazivaju se hunskim narodom koji živi u zemlji Goga i Magoga i da su obrezani prema zakonima judaizma.
Lingvistika uredi
Određivanje porijekla i prirode Hazara blisko je povezano sa teorijama o njihovom jeziku, ali je to pitanje složene prirode jer ne postoje domaći zapisi na hazarskom jeziku, a njihova zemlja je bila poliglotska i polietnička.[26] Dok su vladar i vladajuća elita vjerovatno govorili istočnom varijantom šaz turkijskog jezika, plemena su vjerovatno govorila varijantom lir-turkijskog jezika, kao što su ogurski, koji je identifikovan sa bugarskim, čuvaškim i hunskim (kasnije zasnovano na tvrdnji persijskog istoričara Istahrija da je hazarski jezik drugačiji od bilo kog poznatog jezika).[27].[28] Jedna od metoda za praćenje njegovog porijekla sastoji se u analizi mogućih etimologija etnonima Hazari.
Istorija uredi
Plemenska organizacija i rana istorija uredi
Plemena[29] koja su činila Hazarsko carstvo nisu bila etnička zajednica, nego ogranci stepskih nomada i naroda koji su bili potčinjeni i obavezani na ključno turskijsko vođstvo.[30] Mnoge turskijske skupine, kao što su ogurski narodi, uključujući Saragure, Ogure, Onogure i Bulgare koji su ranije bili dio Tijele konfederacije, a kojoj su prišli nakon što su ih na zapad otjerali Saviri, a koji su opet bježali od azijskih Avara, počeli da se doseljavaju u Povolško-kaspijsko-pontsku oblast još od 4. vijeka i to je zabilježio Prisk, koji je već od 463. godine živio u zapadnom dijelu evroazijske stepe.[31][32] Oni izgleda potiču iz Mongolije i južnog Sibira iz perioda nakon sloma hunskog/sjungnskog nomadskog subjekta. Raznovrsna plemenska federacija koju su predvodili ovi Turkijci, koja se vjerovatno sastojala od složenog skupa iranskih,[33] pramongolskih, uralskih i paleosibirskih plemena, pokorila je Žoužanski kaganat srednjoazijskih Avara 552. godine i otisnula se dalje na zapad, uzimajući u svom pohodu druge stepske nomade i narode Sogdijane..[34]
Vladajuća porodica ove konfederacije možda je poticala iz klana Ašina iz zapadnoturkijskih plemena,[35] iako Konstantin Cukerman gleda ulogu Ašina i njihovu ključnu ulogu u formiranju Hazara sa skepticizmom.[36] Golden napominje da su kineski i arapski izvještaji gotovo identični, što vezu čini jakom, i pretpostavlja da je njihov vođa možda bio Ibris-Šeguj kan, koji je vlast izgubio ili je ubijen oko 651. godine.[37] Krećući se na zapad, konfederacija je stigla do zemlje Akacira,[38] koji su bili važni saveznici Vizantije u borbi protiv Atiline vojske.
Uspon hazarske države uredi
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Uspon Rusije i slom hazarske države uredi
U 9. veku, po izveštaju Konstantina VII Porfirogenita, grupa od tri hazarska plemena, Kabari, se pobunila protiv hazarske centralne vlasti. Razlog pobune je po nekim izvorima[39], bila verska nesuglasica. Posle ratnog sukoba i poraza Kabari su se pridružili Mađarima i njihovoj federaciji od sedam mađarskih plemena.
Krajem 9. veka Hazari su napali Pečenjeze koji su ih ugrožavali. Pečenjezi su bili primorani da se povuku zapadnije gde su došli u sukob sa tamošnjim mađarskim plemenima. Pečenjezi su uspeli da istisnu Mađare iz Donsko-Dnjeparskog bazena. Pod vođstvom Leveda a kasnije Arpada, Mađari kreću prema Panonskoj niziji i ostavljaju prazan prostor u Hazarskom carstvu.
Hazari su u 10. veku ušli u savez sa Vizantijom gde su se istakli u borbama protiv Arapa. Godine 965, vojvoda od Kijeva, Svjatoslav, je potukao Hazare i njihovo carstvo je propalo.
Pojedina hazarska plemena su nastavila živeti van bivšeg Hazarskog carstva i utopila se u narode novih država.[traži se izvor]
Opis naroda uredi
Hazari su bili stepski ratnici: na konjima, naoružani kopljem, lukom i strelom, sabljom uobičajenim za stepu a imali su i neku vrstu sekire. Sami su sebe u borbama štitili primitivnim kožnim oklopima. Njihova utvrđenja u kojima su živeli su bila čvrsta i većinom izgrađena od kamena. Tvrđava u Sarkelu, izgrađena od cigala pokazuje vizantijski uticaj, uz čiju pomoć su je i sagradili.
Vidi još uredi
Reference uredi
- ^ Sneath 2007, str. 25.
- ^ Noonan 1999, str. 493.
- ^ Golden 2011, str. 65.
- ^ Noonan 1999, str. 498.
- ^ Noonan 1999, str. 499, 502–3.
- ^ Golden 2007a, str. 131.
- ^ Golden 2007a, str. 28.
- ^ Golden 2007a, str. 149.
- ^ Kizilov 2009, str. 335.
- ^ Patai & Patai 2987, str. 73.
- ^ Wexler 1987, str. 70.
- ^ Wexler 2002, str. 536.
- ^ Rubin 2013.
- ^ Davies 1992, str. 242.
- ^ Vogt 1975.
- ^ Golden 2007a, str. 15.
- ^ Golden 2007a, str. 16 i n.38, citing L. Bazin, 'Pour une nouvelle hypothèse sur l'origine des Khazar,' in Materialia Turcica, 7/8 (1981—1982): 51–71..
- ^ Golden 2007a, str. 16, Compare Tibetan dru-gu Gesar (the Turk Gesar)..
- ^ Dunlop 1954, str. 34–40.
- ^ Golden 2007a, str. 16.
- ^ Golden 2007a, str. 17, Kěsà (可薩) would have been pronounced something like kha'sat in both Early Middle Chinese/EMC and Late Middle Chinese/LMC while Hésà (曷薩) would yield γat-sat in (EMC) and xɦat sat (LMC) respectively, where final 't' often transcribes –r- in foreign words. Thus, while these Chinese forms could transcribe a foreign word of the type *Kasar/*Kazar, *Gatsar, *Gazr, *Gasar, there is a problem phonetically with assimilating these to the Uyğur word Qasar/ Gesa (EMC/LMC Kat-sat= Kar sar= *Kasar)..
- ^ Shirota 2005, str. 235, 248.
- ^ Brook 2010, str. 5.
- ^ Golden 2007b, str. 148, Ibn al-Nadīm commenting on script systems in 987-8 recorded that the Khazars wrote in Hebrew..
- ^ Erdal 2007, str. 98–99, "The chancellery of the Jewish state of the Khazars is therefore also likely to have used Hebrew writing even if the official language was a Turkic one.".
- ^ Erdal 2007, str. 75, n.2.'there must have been many different ethnic groups within the Khazar realm … These groups spoke different languages, some of them no doubt belonging to the Indo-European or different Caucasian language families.'. The high chancery official of the en:Abbasid Caliphate under en:Al-Wathiq, Sallām the interpreter (Sallam al-tardjuman), famous for his reputed mastery of thirty languages, might have been both Jewish and a Khazar.Wasserstein 2007, str. 376, and n.2 referring to.Dunlop 1954, str. 190–193.
- ^ Golden 2006, str. 91, 'Oğuric Turkic, spoken by many of the subject tribes, doubtless, was one of the linguae francae of the state. Alano-As was also widely spoken. Eastern Common Turkic, the language of the royal house and its core tribes, in all likelihood remained the language of the ruling elite in the same way that Mongol continued to be used by the rulers of the Golden Horde, alongside of the Qipčaq Turkic speech spoken by the bulk of the Turkic tribesmen that constituted the military force of this part of the en:Činggisid empire. Similarity, Oğuric, like Qipčaq Turkic in the Jočid realm, functioned as one of the languages of government..
- ^ Golden 2007a, str. 13–14, 14 n.28, al-Iṣṭakhrī 's account however then contradicts itself by likening the language to Bulğaric..
- ^ Golden 2001b, str. 78.'The word tribe is as troublesome as the term clan. It is commonly held to denote a group, like the clan, claiming descent from a common (in some culture zones eponymous) ancestor, possessing a common territory, economy, language, culture, religion, and sense of identity. In reality, tribes were often highly fluid sociopolitical structures, arising as "ad hoc responses to ephemeral situations of competition," as Morton H. Fried has noted.'
- ^ Whittow 1996, str. 220–223
- ^ Golden 2007a, str. 14
- ^ Szádeczky-Kardoss 1994, str. 206
- ^ Golden 2007a, str. 40–41;Brook 2010, str. 4 note that Dieter Ludwig, in his doctoral thesis Struktur und Gesellschaft des Chazaren-Reiches im Licht der schriftlichen Quellen, (Münster,1982) suggested that the Khazars were Turkic members of the Hephthalite Empire, where the lingua franca was a variety of Iranian.
- ^ Golden 2006, str. 86
- ^ Golden 2007a, str. 53,
- ^ Zuckerman 2007, str. 404.Cf.'The reader should be warned that the A-shih-na link of the Khazar dynasty, an old phantom of . . Khazarology, will . .lose its last claim to reality'.
- ^ Golden 2006, str. 89.
- ^ Golden 2006, str. 89–90. In this view, the name Khazar would derive from a hypothetical *Aq Qasar.
- ^ Artamonov, Mihail Illarionovič je vršio ova istraživanja
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(pomoć) - Golb, Norman; Pritsak, Omeljan (1982). Khazarian Hebrew Documents of the Tenth Century. Cornell University Press. Pristupljeno 10. 2. 2013.
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Spoljašnje veze uredi
- Hazari
- Hazari, istraživanja
- The Kievan Letter scan in the Cambridge University Library collection.
- Khazaria.com
- Resources – Medieval Jewish History – The Khazars
- Khazar Historic Maps na sajtu Wayback Machine (arhivirano 2009-10-26)
- The Kitab al-Khazari of Judah Hallevi, full English translation at sacred-texts.com
- Ancient lost capital of the Khazar kingdom found