Кухињска со — разлика између измена
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м Враћене измене 109.121.38.5 (разговор) на последњу измену корисника Acamicamacaraca ознака: враћање |
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{{rut}}{{short description|Hemijsko jedinjenje}}
{{Друго значење3|Сол}}
{{Chembox
| Verifiedfields = changed
| Watchedfields = changed
| verifiedrevid = 477002432
| Name =
| ImageFile = Selpologne.jpg
| ImageCaption =
| ImageFile1 = Halit-Kristalle.jpg
| ImageCaption1 = Sodium chloride as the mineral halite
| ImageFile2 = Sodium-chloride-3D-ionic.png
| ImageCaption2 = Crystal structure with sodium in purple and chloride in green
| IUPACName = Sodium chloride
| OtherNames = {{unbulleted list
| Common salt
| halite
| rock salt
| saline
| table salt
| regular salt
| sea salt
}}
| SystematicName =
| Section1 = {{Chembox Identifiers
|
| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}}
| PubChem = 5234
| UNII = 451W47IQ8X
| UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}}
| EINECS = 231-598-3
| KEGG = D02056
| KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}}
| MeSHName = Sodium+chloride
| ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
| ChEBI = 26710
| ChEMBL = 1200574
| ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|changed|EBI}}
| RTECS = VZ4725000
| Beilstein = 3534976
| Gmelin = 13673
| SMILES = [Na+].[Cl-]
| StdInChI = 1S/ClH.Na/h1H;/q;+1/p-1
| StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| InChI = 1/ClH.Na/h1H;/q;+1/p-1
| StdInChIKey = FAPWRFPIFSIZLT-UHFFFAOYSA-M
| StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| InChIKey = FAPWRFPIFSIZLT-REWHXWOFAE
| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}}
| ChemSpiderID = 5044
}}
| Section2 = {{Chembox Properties
| Formula =
| MolarMass = 58.
| Appearance =
| Odor = Odorless
| Density = 2.
| MeltingPtC = 800.7
| MeltingPt_ref=<ref name=crc/>
| BoilingPtC = 1465
| BoilingPt_ref=<ref name=crc/>
| Solubility = 360 g/L<ref name=crc/>
| Solvent1 = ammonia
| Solubility1 = 21.5 g/L
| Solvent2 = methanol
| Solubility2 = 14.9 g/L
| RefractIndex = 1.5441 (at 589 nm)<ref>Haynes, 10.241</ref>
| MagSus = −30.2·10<sup>−6</sup> cm<sup>3</sup>/mol<ref>Haynes, 4.135</ref>
}}
| Section3 = {{Chembox Structure
| Structure_ref =<ref>Haynes, 4.148</ref>
| CrystalStruct = Face-centered cubic <br>(''see text''), [[Pearson symbol|cF8]]
| SpaceGroup = Fm{{overline|3}}m, No. 225
| LattConst_a = 564.02 pm
| Coordination = Octahedral (Na<sup>+</sup>)<br />octahedral (Cl<sup>−</sup>)
}}
| Section4 =
| Section5 = {{Chembox Thermochemistry
| Thermochemistry_ref =<ref>Haynes, 5.8</ref>
| DeltaHf = −411.120 kJ/mol
| Entropy = 72.10 J/(K·mol)
| HeatCapacity = 50.5 J/(K·mol)
}}
| Section6 = {{Chembox Pharmacology
| ATCCode_prefix = A12
| ATCCode_suffix = CA01
| ATC_Supplemental = {{ATC|B05|CB01}}, {{ATC|B05|XA03}}, {{ATC|S01|XA03}}
}}
| Section7 = {{Chembox Hazards
| NFPA-H = 0
|
|
| LD50 = 3 g/kg (oral, rats)<ref>[http://chem.sis.nlm.nih.gov/chemidplus/rn/7647-14-5 Sodium chloride]. nlm.nih.gov.</ref>
}}
| Section8 = {{Chembox Related
| OtherAnions = [[Sodium fluoride]]<br />[[Sodium bromide]]<br />[[Sodium iodide]]<br/>[[Sodium astatide]]
| OtherCations = [[Lithium chloride]]<br />[[Potassium chloride]]<br />[[Rubidium chloride]]<br />[[Caesium chloride]]<br/>[[Francium chloride]]
}}
}}
[[Датотека:Sodium chloride crystal.png|мини|
[[Датотека:Salt - close-up.jpg|мини|
'''Кухињска со''',<ref>{{citation|last=Wells|first=John C.|year=2008|title=Longman Pronunciation Dictionary|edition=3rd|publisher=Longman|pages=143 and 755|isbn=9781405881180}}</ref> [[хемија|хемијски]] '''натријум-хлорид''' ([[молекулска формула]] [[Натријум|-{Na}-]][[Хлор|-{Cl}-]]) је једно од најраспрострањенијих [[хемијско једињење|хемијских једињења]] у природи. Натријум хлорид је бела кристална [[хемијска супстанца|супстанција]], веома добро растворљива у [[вода|води]], ипак са малом максималном [[концентрација|концентрацијом]]. Натријум хлорид спада у ред најзначајнијих једињења у хемијској индустрији и извор је сланости морске воде. [[Молекул]] натријум хлорида се састоји од једног [[атом]]а [[натријум]]а и једног атома [[хлор]]а. [[Молекулска маса]] кухињске соли је 58.4 u. [[Тачка топљења|Температура топљења]] натријум хлорида износи 801 -{°C}-, а [[тачка кључања|температура кључања]] 1465 -{°C}-.
Човек често користи кухињску со у својој исхрани као [[зачин]] или као средство које утиче на квалитет и брзину припремања хране. Sodium chloride is the [[salt (chemistry)|salt]] most responsible for the [[salinity]] of [[seawater]] and of the [[extracellular fluid]] of many [[multicellular organism]]s. In its edible form of [[salt|table salt]], it is commonly used as a [[condiment]] and [[Curing (food preservation)|food preservative]]. Large quantities of sodium chloride are used in many industrial processes, and it is a major source of sodium and chlorine compounds used as [[feedstock]]s for further chemical syntheses. A second major application of sodium chloride is de-icing of roadways in sub-freezing weather.
== Биолошки значај -{NaCl}- ==
Линија 56 ⟶ 112:
Претпоставља се да прекомерна употреба соли може да изазове појаву неких обољења.
== Својства и распрострањеност ==
Со је доступна у облику прозирних кристала добро растворних у води, релативне молекулске масе 58,4 [[atomska jedinica mase|-{u]}-]. Привлачне силе међу јонима у кристалној решетки су јаке, те због јаке јонске везе између јона натријума и хлора, [[талиште|тачка топљења]] је релативно висока 801 °-{C}- и [[vrelište|тачка кључања]] 1465 °-{C}-.
U prirodi je vrlo rasprostranjen i najrašireniji je spoj natrija, a njegov najvažniji izvor je morska voda u kojoj mu je maseni udio oko 2,8 - 3%. U Zemljinoj kori nalazi se u naslagama kao kamena sol, [[halit]], a u manjim količinama ima ga u svakom tlu.
Čist natrijev klorid je bezbojni ionski kristal slana okusa. Kristalizira u kubičnom sustavu. Građevne jedinice kristalne strukture su natrijevi i kloridni ioni. Kristal je sastavljen od plošno centriranih struktura natrijevih i kloridnih iona međusobno pomaknutih za polovicu duljine brida elementarne ćelije. Koordinacijski broj natrijevog i kloridnog iona je šest. Za takav je koordinacijski broj najčešći oktaedarski prostorni raspored iona.
Kuhinjska sol, kristalizira u bezbojnim kockicama, nekad u oktaedrima.
Sniženje ledišta ovisi o udjelu otopljene tvari u otopini; w(NaCl) 10 % otopina ima ledište od -7,4°C, a 20%-tna otopina NaCl-a ima ledište -14,5°C. Pri nižim temperaturama (-10°C) iz vodenih otopina izlučuje se u obliku dihidrata (NaClx2H2O) koji pri 0,15°C prelazi u bezvodnu sol.
Natrijev klorid (upotrijebljena kao kuhinjska sol), je često vlažna zbog prisustva magnezijeva klorida (MgCl) ili magnezijeva sulfata (MgSO<sub>4</sub>), koji su higroskopni. Čisti natrijev klorid nije higroskopan.
Dobro se otapa u polarnim otapalima kao što su: voda, [[metanol]], [[etanol]] i tekući [[amonijak]]; a apsolutna vrijednost entalpije otapanja mu je jako mala. Pri otapanju razgrađuje se kristalna rešetka.
U 100g vode pri 50°C otopit će se 39g NaCl-a. Jedna litra morske vode sadrži 10,5 g natrijevih iona i 19,0g kloridnih iona.<br />
Entalpija otapanja natrijeva klorida je vrlo mala (4 kJ mol-1), što pokazuje da se topljivost NaCl-a neće bitno promijeniti povišenjem temperature, za razliku od nekih drugih soli. To je razlog zašto je maseni udio natrijeva klorida u moru stalan, oko 2,8% bez obzira na klimatske uvjete;
NaCl(s) --> (H<sub>2</sub>O) Na<sup>+</sup><sub>(aq)</sub> + Cl<sup>-</sup><sub>(aq)</sub>
Iako je vodena otopina natrijeva klorida neutralna, ona zbog aktivirajućeg djelovanja kloridnih iona djeluje korozivno (osobito ako sadrži kisik iz zraka).
U litri morske vode ima 10,6g natrijevih i 0,38g kalijevih iona. Budući da je maseni udio natrija i kalija u Zemljinoj kori gotovo jednak, velika se razlika njihovih koncentracija u morskoj vodi može protumačiti time što biljke iz voda koje prodiru u tlo vežu pretežito kalijeve ione.
Neophodan je u ljudskoj i životinjskoj prehrani i zato svakodnevno valja u organizam unijeti određenu količinu soli. U živom je organizmu važan odnos koncentracije (Na+) izvan stanice (Na-K pumpa). Ako se ravnoteža tih iona poremeti, dolazi do poremećaja rada srca, metabolizma ugljikohidrata te podražljivosti i kontrakcije mišića.<br />
Potreban je i nekim biljkama koje rastu na obalama mora ([[halofiti]]).
== Производња ==
Натријум хлорид се може синтетисати по реакцији:
: -{2 Na + 2 HCl → 2 NaCl + H<sub>2</sub>}-
Алтернативно, може се излучити из природних извора као што су [[море]], [[слана језера]], дубинске наслаге слане воде, или се копа као минерал. Кухињска со се добија из морске воде (велике количине се налазе растворене у мору (просечно је -{w(NaCl)}- = 2,7%), и из великих дебелих наслага као камена со, као остатак праисторијских мора која су се исушила у прошлим геолошким периодима.
Iz prirodnih se nalazišta dobiva kopanjem i vađenjem iz rudnika kamene soli, crpljenjem, koncentriranjem i uparavanjem slane vode iz podzemnih naslaga i uparavanjem morske vode u plitkim bazenima.
Iz prirodnih nalazišta natrijev klorid se dobiva na tri načina:
a) Rudarskim kopanjem dobivaju se blokovi soli koji se otapaju za industrijske potrebe, ili se drobe i melju za prehranu. Takva kamena sol obično je vrlo čista i sadrži samo tragove magnezija.
b) Naslage kamene soli otpaju se u vodi do zasićenja. Slana voda se crpi i uparava. Sol kristalizira u obliku vrlo sitnih kristala (varena sol). Na taj način dobiva se sol u [[Tuzla|Tuzli]] u Bosni i Hercegovini. I ova sol je poprilično čista, ali ipak sadrži više nečistoća (osobito magnezija) od kamene soli.
c) Uparavanjem morske vode (Nin, Pag, Ston). Kako je morska voda bogata natrijevim kloridom, sol se dobiva i uparavanjem (u toplim krajevima) ili smrzavanjem (u hladnim krajevima) morske vode u plitkim bazenima.<br />
Morska sol je najmanje čista i sadrži prilično magnezija (w(MgO) = 0,5 do 1,2%). Količina magnezija u morskoj soli ovisi o načinu kristalizacije. Ako se kristalizira iz manje koncentriranih otopina (26°Be ~ 1,219g cm-3), sol sadrži vrlo malo magnezija. Osim toga je važno da li se sol skuplja svakoga dana ([[Piran]]) ili jednom godišnje ([[Ulcinj]]). Kod svakodnevne berbe sadržaj magnezijevih spojeva u natrijevu kloridu je maksimalan (w(MgO) = 1,5%). Takva sol je gorka i vrlo higroskopna. Velike količine soli troše se ua ljudsku i stočnu hranu. Za ljudsku hranu obično je potrebno sol prethodno jodirati. Natrijev klorid kristalizira u strukturi teseralnog sistema.
== Употребе ==
In addition to the familiar domestic uses of salt, more dominant applications of the approximately 250 megatons per year production (2008 data) include chemicals and de-icing.<ref name=Ullmann>Westphal, Gisbert ''et al.'' (2002) "Sodium Chloride" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim {{DOI|10.1002/14356007.a24_317.pub4}}.</ref>
=== Хемијска продукција ===
Salt is used, directly or indirectly, in the production of many chemicals, which consume most of the world's production.<ref name=usgs/>
====Chlor-alkali industry====
{{See also|Chloralkali process}}
It is the starting point for the [[chloralkali process]], the industrial process to produce [[chlorine]] and [[sodium hydroxide]], according to the [[chemical equation]]
: 2 NaCl + 2 H<sub>2</sub>O → Cl<sub>2</sub> + H<sub>2</sub> + 2 NaOH
This electrolysis is conducted in either a mercury cell, a diaphragm cell, or a membrane cell. Each of those uses a different method to separate the chlorine from the sodium hydroxide. Other technologies are under development due to the high energy consumption of the electrolysis, whereby small improvements in the efficiency can have large economic paybacks. Some applications of chlorine include [[PVC]], disinfectants, and solvents. Sodium hydroxide enables industries that produce paper, soap, and aluminium.
===Standard===
Sodium chloride has an international standard that is created by [[ASTM International]]. The standard is named '''ASTM E534-13''' and is the standard test methods for chemical analysis of sodium chloride. These methods listed provide procedures for analyzing sodium chloride to determine whether it is suitable for its intended use and application.
===Water softening===
[[Hard water]] contains calcium and magnesium ions that interfere with action of [[soap]] and contribute to the buildup of a scale or film of alkaline mineral deposits in household and industrial equipment and pipes. Commercial and residential water-softening units use [[ion-exchange resin]]s to remove the offending ions that cause the hardness. These resins are generated and regenerated using sodium chloride.<ref name=usgs/><ref name=Ullmann/>
===Road salt===
[[File:WatNaCl.png|thumb|left|upright=1.15|Phase diagram of water–NaCl mixture]]
The second major application of salt is for [[de-icing]] and anti-icing of roads, both in [[grit bin]]s and spread by [[winter service vehicle]]s. In anticipation of snowfall, roads are optimally "anti-iced" with brine (concentrated [[solution]] of salt in water), which prevents bonding between the snow-ice and the road surface. This procedure obviates the heavy use of salt after the snowfall. For de-icing, mixtures of brine and salt are used, sometimes with additional agents such as [[calcium chloride]] and/or [[magnesium chloride]]. The use of salt or brine becomes ineffective below {{convert|−10|°C|0}}.
[[File:Winter road salt.jpg|thumbnail|left|upright=1.15|Mounds of road salt for use in winter]]
Salt for de-icing in the United Kingdom predominantly comes from a single mine in [[Winsford]] in [[Salt in Cheshire|Cheshire]]. Prior to distribution it is mixed with <100 ppm of [[sodium ferrocyanide]] as an anti-caking agent, which enables rock salt to flow freely out of the gritting vehicles despite being stockpiled prior to use. In recent years this additive has also been used in table salt. Other additives had been used in road salt to reduce the total costs. For example, in the US, a byproduct carbohydrate solution from sugar-beet processing was mixed with rock salt and adhered to road surfaces about 40% better than loose rock salt alone. Because it stayed on the road longer, the treatment did not have to be repeated several times, saving time and money.<ref name=usgs/>
In the technical terms of physical chemistry, the minimum freezing point of a water-salt mixture is {{convert|−21.12|C|F}} for 23.31 wt% of salt. Freezing near this concentration is however so slow that the [[eutectic point]] of {{convert|−22.4|C|F}} can be reached with about 25 wt% of salt.<ref name="u1"/>
====Environmental effects====
Road salt ends up in fresh-water bodies and could harm aquatic plants and animals by disrupting their [[osmoregulation]] ability.<ref>Rastogi, Nina (16 February 2010) [http://www.slate.com/id/2244156 Does road salt harm the environment?] slate.com.</ref> The omnipresence of salt poses a problem in any coastal coating application, as trapped salts cause great problems in adhesion. Naval authorities and ship builders monitor the salt concentrations on surfaces during construction. Maximal salt concentrations on surfaces are dependent on the authority and application. The [[International Maritime Organization|IMO]] regulation is mostly used and sets salt levels to a maximum of 50 mg/m<sup>2</sup> soluble salts measured as sodium chloride. These measurements are done by means of a [[Bresle test]]. Salinization (increasing salinity, aka ''freshwater salinization syndrome'') and subsequent increased metal leaching is an ongoing problem throughout North America and European fresh waterways.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://phys.org/news/2018-12-saltier-waterways-dangerous-chemical-cocktails.html|title=Saltier waterways are creating dangerous 'chemical cocktails'|website=phys.org}}</ref>
In highway de-icing, salt has been associated with [[corrosion]] of bridge decks, motor vehicles, reinforcement bar and wire, and unprotected steel structures used in road construction. Surface runoff, vehicle spraying, and windblown actions also affect soil, roadside vegetation, and local surface water and groundwater supplies. Although evidence of environmental loading of salt has been found during peak usage, the spring rains and thaws usually dilute the concentrations of sodium in the area where salt was applied.<ref name=usgs/> A 2009 study found that approximately 70% of the road salt being applied in the [[Minneapolis-St Paul]] metro area is retained in the local watershed.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/02/090210125424.htm |title=Most Road Salt Is Making It into Lakes And Rivers |date=20 February 2009 |website=www.sciencedaily.com |publisher=University of Minnesota |access-date=27 September 2015}}</ref>
====Substitution====
Some agencies are substituting beer, molasses, and beet juice instead of road salt.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://phys.org/news/2018-01-salt-solution-winter-dangers-threatens.html|title=Turning to beet juice and beer to address road salt danger|website=phys.org}}</ref> Airlines utilize more [[glycol]] and [[sugar]] rather than salt based solutions for [[de-icing]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mro-network.com/maintenance-repair-overhaul/easa-cautions-organic-salt-deicing-fluid|title=EASA Cautions on Organic Salt Deicing Fluid|date=9 December 2016|website=MRO Network}}</ref>
== Види још ==
Линија 62 ⟶ 199:
* [[хлор]]
* [[хлорид]]и
== Референце ==
{{reflist|refs=
<ref name=usgs>Kostick, Dennis S. (October 2010) [http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/salt/myb1-2008-salt.pdf "Salt"] in ''U.S. Geological Survey, 2008 Minerals Yearbook''</ref>
<ref name=u1>Elvers, B. ''et al.'' (ed.) (1991) ''Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry'', 5th ed. Vol. A24, Wiley, p. 319, {{ISBN|978-3-527-20124-2}}.</ref>
}}
== Литература ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book | editor= Haynes, William M. | year = 2011 | title = CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics | edition = 92nd | publisher = [[CRC Press]] | isbn = 978-1439855119| title-link = CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics }}
* {{cite journal |title=Using Salt and Sand for Winter Road Maintenance |journal=Road Management Journal |date=December 1997 |url=http://www.usroads.com/journals/p/rmj/9712/rm971202.htm}}
{{refend}}
== Спољашње везе ==
{{Commonscat|Sodium chloride}}
* -{[http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/salt/ Salt] [[United States Geological Survey]] Statistics and Information}-
* -{Calculators: [http://www.aim.env.uea.ac.uk/aim/surftens/surftens.php surface tensions], and [http://www.aim.env.uea.ac.uk/aim/density/density_electrolyte.php densities, molarities and molalities] of aqueous NaCl (and other salts)}-
* -{[http://hazard.com/msds/mf/baker/baker/files/s3338.htm JtBaker MSDS]}-
{{Једињења натријума}}
{{Минерални суплементи}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Портал бар|Хемија}}
[[Категорија:Неорганска једињења]]
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