Маракаибо (језеро) — разлика између измена
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'''Језеро Маракаибо''' ({{јез-шп|Lago de Maracaibo, Lago del Zulia}}) је језеро и морски залив (по некима [[континентално море]]) на северозападу [[Венецуела|Венецуеле]]. На северу је повезано плитким [[Сан Карлос (канал)|каналом Сан Карлос]] (дубина 2 до 4 метра) са [[Венецуелански залив|Венецуеланским заливом]]. Воду прима из мноштва река од којих је највећа [[Кататумбо]]. Вода у језеру је полуслана.
[[Датотека:Maracaibo MODIS 2004jun26.jpg|мини|лево|Сателитски снимак језера Маракаибо]]
Језеро Маракаибо је највеће језеро [[Јужна Америка|Јужне Америке]], са површином од 13210 km². То је једно од најстаријих језера на свету (по неким оценама друго по старости).<ref>[http://www.worldlakes.org/lakedetails.asp?lakeid=9069 Маракаибо на LakeNet], Приступљено 4. 5. 2013.</ref> На обалама језера живи четвртина становништва Венецуеле. Источна обала језера Маракаибо је веома богата нафтом.
== Географија ==
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Lake Maracaibo is located in the [[Maracaibo Lowlands|Maracaibo lowland]] in the faulted basin between the [[Perija Mountains]] and the Merida Mountains of the Eastern Cordillera Mountains in northwestern Venezuela.<ref name=a1>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=中國大百科全書 |title=马拉开波湖 |edition=第一版 |url=https://h.bkzx.cn/item/49424?q=%E9%A9%AC%E6%8B%89%E5%BC%80%E6%B3%A2%E6%B9%96 |accessdate=2022-04-19| language = zh-CN}}</ref><ref name=b2>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=中國大百科全書 |title=马拉开波湖 |edition=第二版 |url=https://h.bkzx.cn/item/219678?q=%E9%A9%AC%E6%8B%89%E5%BC%80%E6%B3%A2%E6%B9%96 |accessdate=2022-04-19| language = zh-CN}}</ref> The lake is in the shape of a vase.<ref name="ESA, 2005">{{Cite web | url = http://www.esa.int/Applications/Observing_the_Earth/Earth_from_Space_Maracaibo_Venezuela | title = Earth from Space: Maracaibo, Venezuela | date = 2005-05-20 | work = [[ESA]] | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20191206052731/http://www.esa.int/Applications/Observing_the_Earth/Earth_from_Space_Maracaibo_Venezuela | archive-date = 2019-12-06| language = en}}</ref> It is 210 kilometers long from north to south, 121 kilometers wide from east to west,<ref name=britannica4>{{cite encyclopedia | url= https://www.britannica.com/place/Lake-Maracaibo | title= Lake Maracaibo | encyclopedia=[[britannica]]| date=2016-06-16 | access-date=2016-12-06 | language = en-GB}}</ref><ref name="Publishing2010">{{cite book|author=John P. Rafferty|title=Lakes and Wetlands: A "Juvenile Nonfiction Book"|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fdKcAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA192|date=2010-10-01|publisher=britannica Publishing|isbn=978-1-61530-403-5|page=192|language = en}}</ref> covers an area of 13,512 square kilometers, the deepest is 35 meters,<ref>{{cite book|author=Merriam-Webster|title=webster|date=2016|url=https://archive.org/details/webstersnewgeogr00merr/page/727|isbn=978-0-87779-446-2|page=727| language = en-US}}</ref> the shore length is about 1000 kilometers, and the volume is about 280 cubic kilometers.<ref name=a1/><ref name=b2/> The largest river entering the lake, the [[Catatumbo River]], enters the lake from west to east, providing 57% of the water entering the lake. In addition to the influence of the prevailing wind, the lake water circulates counterclockwise.<ref name="Publishing2010"/><ref name="QuinnWoodward2015">{{cite book|author1=Joyce A. Quinn|author2=Susan L. Woodward|title=Earth's Landscape: An Encyclopedia of the World's Geographic Features |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ErkxBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA397|date=2015-02-03|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-61069-446-9|page=397| language = en}}</ref> There are also the [[Santa Ana River (Venezuela)|Santa Ana River]], [[Chama River (Venezuela)|Chama River]], [[Motatán River]], [[Escalante River (Venezuela)|Escalante River]], and about fifty other rivers which drain into it.<ref name=a1/><ref name=b2/>
Lake Maracaibo is deep in the south and shallow in the north. The northern half of the lake, which looks like a bottleneck, is 55 kilometers long.<ref name="ESA, 2005"/><ref name="Publishing2010"/> The southeastern edge of the lake basin with a flat bottom is steep and the northwestern edge is gentle.<ref name="QuinnWoodward2015"/> It is slightly salty due to the influence of tides, and the overall [[salinity]] is between 1.5 and 3.8%.<ref name="ESA, 2005"/><ref name=britannica4/> The Catatumbo River forms a bird-foot-shaped [[River delta|delta]] in the southwest of the lake basin, and the surface lake water in the delta has a salinity of only 0.13%. However, the intrusion of seawater from the mouth of the lake makes the salinity of the bottom lake water higher, reaching 0.2-0.3%.<ref name="QuinnWoodward2015"/> The north is connected with the [[Gulf of Venezuela]], and the [[Spit (landform)|spit]] at the mouth of the lake extends for about 26 kilometers.<ref name=britannica4/>
The annual average temperature of the lake area is 28°C,<ref name=b2/> the precipitation is more in the south and less in the north, and the average annual rainfall in the south is 1400 mm.<ref name="QuinnWoodward2015"/> The mountain wind from the Andes at night contacts the warm and humid air on the lake surface, forming an average of 297 mm per year. The second night thunderstorm makes the lake area the place with the most frequent lightning on earth. There are about 233 lightning strikes per square kilometer in a year on average.<ref name=nasa1>{{cite news |author1=Molly Porter |title=Earth's New Lightning Capital Revealed |url=https://www.nasa.gov/centers/marshall/news/news/releases/2016/earths-new-lightning-capital-revealed.html |accessdate=2022-04-22 |work=[[NASA]] |date=2006-05-02|language = en-US}}</ref> The nocturnal thunderstorms occur on average about 297 days per year. At its peak in September, the lake area can experience up to 280 lightning strikes per hour,<ref name="QuinnWoodward2015"/><ref name=nasa1/> approximately 28 lightning strikes per minute, lasting up to 9 hours, and is capable of illuminating nighttime navigation.<ref name=nasa3>{{cite news |author1=Agnieszka Gautier |title=The Maracaibo beacon |url=https://earthdata.nasa.gov/learn/sensing-our-planet/the-maracaibo-beacon |accessdate=2022-04-24 |work=[[NASA]] |date=2021-04-19|language=en-US}}</ref>
== Историја ==
Lake Maracaibo is one of the oldest lakes on earth. It was formed 36 million years ago when the faults collapsed when the Andes were uplifted in the late [[Eocene]].<ref name="ESA, 2005"/><ref name="QuinnWoodward2015"/> In the geological history, sea water and fresh water have alternated many times, and have flooded the area.<ref name="QuinnWoodward2015"/> At the end of the [[Last Glacial Period|last glacial period]], the sea level rose, connecting Lake Maracaibo directly with the [[Atlantic Ocean]],<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://zenodo.org/record/5256653|title=Salinidad del agua en el epilimnion del Lago de Maracaibo|date=2021-08-25|publisher=Observador del Conocimiento|pages=81-89|access-date=2022-03-15|language=es|doi=10.5281/zenodo.5256653|author=Luis Boscán, Fausto Capote, José Farias}}</ref> and the lighter fresh water floated on the heavier salt water, causing nutrients to be deposited on the bottom of the lake,<ref name=nasa2>{{cite news |author1=Nola Fernandez Acosta |title=Duckweed Invasion in Lake Maracaibo |url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/4654/duckweed-invasion-in-lake-maracaibo |accessdate=2022-04-22 |work=[[NASA]] |date=2004-06-23|language = en-US}}</ref> forming the formation on the bedrock. More than five kilometers thick sediment.<ref name="QuinnWoodward2015"/>
The Spanish explorer [[Alonso de Ojeda]]'s fleet sailed here on August 24, 1499, the first time Europeans entered this area.<ref name=eco2>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=[[Columbia Encyclopedia]] |title=Maracaibo, Lake |edition=第六版 |url=http://www.bartleby.com/65/ma/MaracaibL.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061221215258/http://www.bartleby.com/65/ma/MaracaibL.html |archive-date=2006-12-21 |accessdate=2006-12-02|isbn=0-7876-5015-3|language = en-US}}</ref> Spain made two attempts to establish settlements around the lake in 1529 and 1569, but it was not until 1574 that the city of [[Maracaibo]] was successfully established. On June 24, 1823, Venezuela won the famous [[Battle of Lake Maracaibo]] on the lake during the [[Venezuelan War of Independence]].<ref name=hy3>{{cite encyclopedia | url= https://www.britannica.com/place/Maracaibo | title= Maracaibo, Venezuela | encyclopedia=[[britannica]]| date=2016-06-16 | access-date=2022-04-19 |language = en-GB}}</ref>
The original depth of the lake mouth, which was only more than 4 meters deep, was increased to 8 meters after dredging in the 1930s, and the 3-kilometer-long stone breakwater was further increased to 11 meters after its completion in 1957, allowing ocean-going tankers to enter the lake,<ref name=britannica4/> At the same time, the northern part, which was originally fresh water, became brackish.<ref name=nasa4>{{cite news |author1=Michael Carlowicz |title=Troubled Waters |url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/148894/troubled-waters |accessdate=2022-04-24 |work=[[NASA]] |date=2021-09-25}}</ref> The 8,678-meter [[General Rafael Urdaneta Bridge|General Rafael Udaneta Bridge]] over the lake connecting Maracaibo and [[Santa Rita, Zulia|Santa Rita]] was completed in 1962.<ref name=b2/><ref name=eco2/>
== Индустрија ==
Lake Maracaibo is rich in oil and gas resources and is known as the "oil lake".<ref name=b2/> The first Spaniards who arrived used tar seeping from the lake to fill ship cracks.<ref name=nasa3/> The Maracaibo oil field was discovered in 1914,<ref name=dn3>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=denstoredanske |author1=Helle Askgaard|author2=Per Nielsen|title=Maracaibo |url=https://denstoredanske.lex.dk/Maracaibo|accessdate=2022-04-26|language = da}}</ref> the first oil well was constructed in 1917, and large-scale exploitation began in 1922.<ref name=b2/> The oil fields are concentrated in the northeast and northwest of the lake, and the oil-producing layers are mainly [[Tertiary]] sandstone and [[Cretaceous]] limestone, with a hydrocarbon-bearing area of 1,300 square kilometers,<ref name=a1/> mainly concentrated in the coastal waters 105 kilometers long and 32 kilometers wide in the east of the lake,<ref name=britannica4/> the extracted oil accounts for 75% of Venezuela's total oil production.<ref name=a1/>
Maracaibo on the northwest coast is the capital of Zulia State, the second largest city in Venezuela and an important oil export port in the world.<ref name=hy3/> The lake area is also an important fishing and agricultural production area in Venezuela, supporting more than 20,000 fishermen, many of whom live in colorful traditional stilt houses built with iron sheets on the lake.<ref name=nasa3/> The main crops on the south bank of the lake are bananas, Peanuts, cocoa, coconut, sugar cane and coffee, the western shore of the lake developed dairy industry.<ref name=a1/><ref name=fr3/>
Lake Maracaibo and the Catatumbo River are the main traffic lines for the transportation of commodities in the nearby area,<ref name="Publishing2010"/><ref name=eco2/> and the city of Maracaibo is the transshipment center of coffee produced in the Andes.<ref name=dn3/> The waterway can pass through large sea-going ships and oil tankers, exporting crude oil and agricultural and livestock products from the Andean mountains and lakes.<ref name=a1/> The Lake District is home to a quarter of Venezuela's population,<ref name=nasa3/> and with the influx of farmers from the nearby Andes, the population of the Lake District increased from about 300,000 in 1936 to over 3.62 million in 2007.<ref name=fr3>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=universalis |title=Bassin de Maracaibo |url=https://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/bassin-de-maracaibo/|accessdate=2022-04-21|language = fr}}</ref>
== Природа ==
Lake Maracaibo is home to clams, [[Callinectes sapidus|blue crabs]], shrimps and other aquatic products,<ref name="QuinnWoodward2015"/> and is also home to two endangered aquatic mammals, the [[West Indian manatee]] and the [[Amazon river dolphin]]. About 145 species of fish inhabit the lake,<ref>{{cite news |author1=María Luisa Paúl |title=Oil slicks and algae blooms marring Venezuela’s largest lake are visible from space |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/10/07/oil-pollution-lake-maracaibo-venezuela/ |accessdate=2022-08-20 |work=Washington Post |date=2021-10-07}}</ref> including many endemic species such as the Maracaibo half-hooked catfish,<ref>{{FishBase_species|genus=Hemiancistrus|species=maracaiboensis|year=2014|month=11}}</ref> the Maracaibo hairy catfish,<ref>{{FishBase_species|genus=Trichomycterus|species|maracaiboensis|year=2014|month=11}}</ref> the Maracaibo Lake Lamont catfish,<ref>{{FishBase_species|genus=Lamontichthys|species=maracaibero |year=2014|month=11}}</ref> Lake Maracaibo tetra,<ref>{{FishBase_species|genus=Bryconamericus|species=motatanensis|year=2014|month=1}}</ref> and Maracaibo wolf anchovies living in surface waters.<ref>{{FishBase_species|genus=Lycengraulis|species=limnichthys|year=2012|month=6}}</ref>
The lake has been drilled about 14,000 times, and more than 15,000 miles of oil and gas pipelines criss-cross the lake floor, but most of these pipelines are half a century old, with oil leaking from many aging underwater pipes.<ref name="ESA, 2005"/><ref name=nasa4/> Before the 1950s, the lake water could still be used directly for domestic use, but then due to the intrusion of tidal salt water caused by the widening of the lake mouth channel, the salinity of the northern lake area increased by about 1,000%, and the south also increased by 300-500%.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|url=https://produccioncientificaluz.org/index.php/boletin/article/view/214|title=Contaminación salina del Lago de Maracaibo: Efectos en la calidad y aplicación de sus aguas|date=1973|publisher=Boletín del Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas|access-date=2021-12-13|language=es|issn=2477-9458|author=Troncone Federico; Rivas Zulay; Ochoa Enrique; Márquez Rómulo; Sánchez José; Castejón Olga}}</ref>
In lakeside towns such as the city of Maracaibo, the lake water is contaminated with [[E. coli]] from feces, oil pollution, and eutrophication caused by agricultural sewage discharged into the lake, as well as domestic and industrial wastewater, resulting in the [[Algal bloom|blooms]] of [[duckweed]] and [[green algae]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|url=http://ve.scielo.org/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&pid=S0378-18442009000500004&lng=es&nrm=iso&tlng=es|title=Nitrógeno y fósforo totales de los ríos tributarios al sistema lago de Maracaibo, Venezuela|year=2009|publisher=Interciencia|pages=308–314|access-date=2021-12-14|language=es|issn=0378-1844|author=Rivas, Zulay}}</ref> In the spring of 2004, heavy rains fell in the Lake Maracaibo basin, causing a large influx of fresh water into the lake. This caused nutrients originally deposited on the bottom of the lake to float to the surface of the lake, which in turn allowed the duckweed to rapidly multiply and triggered a bloom that lasted for up to eight months. The blooms were noted in June to have covered 18% of the lake, and the local government had to begin spending about $2 million per month on cleanup work.<ref name=nasa2/><ref name=nasa4/>
== Референце ==
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