Semiti

Semiti (Semićani) ili semitski narodi, su stara grupa naroda srodnih po jeziku, etničkom poreklu i antropološkim osobinama.^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5] Naseljavaju istočne obale Mediteranskog basena, zemlje Bliskog i Srednjeg istoka kao i severnu Afriku. Ova terminologija se sada uglavnom ne koristi izvan grupisanja „semitskih jezika“ u lingvistici.^[6]^[7]^[8] Prvi put korišćena tokom 1770-ih od strane članova Getingenske škole istorije, ova biblijska terminologija za rasu izvedena je od Šema (hebr. שֵׁם), jednog od tri Nojeva sina u Knjizi postanja,^[9] zajedno sa paralelnim terminima Hamiti i Jafetiti.

Preko dve hiljade godina su Jevreji živeli daleko od svoje prvobitne otadžbine. Semitska istorija i semitska religija [ru] su se najviše udaljile od svojih korena preko hrišćanstva. Semitska kultura je, osim toga, doprla daleko širenjem islama. Sve tri zapadne religije: judaizam, hrišćanstvo i islam – imaju semitsku osnovu. I sveta knjiga Kuran i Stari zavet su napisani na srodnim semitskim jezicima. Iz Starog zaveta ima tako isti jezički koren kao Alah, reč koju muslimani koriste za boga. Kada je reč o hrišćanstvu, stvar je već drugačija. Takođe i hrišćanstvo ima semitsku osnovu, ali je Novi zavet napisan grčkom jeziku, a kada je oblikovana hrišćanska teologija i ili veronauka, nju su označili grčki i latinski jezik i helenistička filozofija. Semiti su se za razliku od Indoevropljana rano opredelili za jednog boga. To se naziva monoteizam. Pod semitske narode, kroz istoriju su se pobrajali Akađani [uk] (Asirci i Vavilonci [uk]), Aramejci (Sirijci) i Kananiti (Jevreji, Feničani [uk], Moabiti i Amoriti). Danas se pod Semitima podrazumevaju uglavnom savremeni Arapi, Jevreji i Maltežani.^[8]

Etnička pripadnost i rasa uredi

Ova T i O mapa, 1472, iz prve štampane verzije Isidor Seviljskovog dela Etymologiae, identifikuje tri poznata kontinenta kao naseljena potomcima Sema (Šem), Jafeta (Jafet) i Čama (Ham).

Termin semitski u rasnom smislu skovali su članovi Getingenske škole istorije tokom ranih 1770-ih. Drugi članovi Getingenske škole istorije skovali su poseban termin belac tokom 1780-ih. Ove termine su koristili i razvili brojni drugi naučnici tokom sledećeg veka. Početkom 20. veka, pseudonaučne klasifikacije Karletona S. Kuna uključile su semitske narode u kavkasku rasu, kao slične po izgledu indoevropskim, severozapadnokavkazskim i narodima koji govore kartvelski.^[10] Zbog preplitanja proučavanja jezika i kulturologije, termin je počeo da se primenjuje i na religije (starosemitske i abrahamske) i etničke grupe različitih kultura koje su povezane geografskom i lingvističkom distribucijom.^[11]

Antisemitizam uredi

Statut Antisemitske lige iz 1879, organizacije koja je prva popularisala taj termin.

Izrazi „antisemita“ ili „antisemitizam“ došli su zaobilaznim putem da se uže odnose na svakoga ko je bio neprijateljski ili diskriminatorski nastrojen prema Jevrejima posebno.^[12]

Antropolozi 19. veka, kao što je Ernest Renan, lako su uskladili lingvističke grupe sa etničkom pripadnošću i kulturom, pozivajući se na anegdote, nauku i folklor u svojim nastojanjima da definišu rasni karakter. Moric Štajnšnajder, u svom časopisu o jevrejskim pismima Hamaskir (3 (Berlin 1860), 16), razmatra članak Hajmana Štajntala^[13] koji kritikuje Renanov članak „Nova razmatranja opšteg karaktera semitskih naroda, posebno njihove sklonosti ka monoteizmu”.^[14] Renan je priznao važnost drevnih civilizacija Mesopotamije, Izraela itd, ali je semitske rase nazvao inferiornim u odnosu na arijevske zbog njihovog [monotheism[|monoteizma]], za koji je smatrao da proizlazi iz njihovih navodnih požudnih, nasilnih, beskrupuloznih i sebičnih rasnih instinkta. Štajntal je ove predispozicije sažeo kao „semitizam“, te je Štajnšnajder okarakterisao Renanove ideje kao „antisemitske predrasude“.^[15]

Godine 1879, nemački novinar Vilhelm Mar započeo je politizaciju pojma govoreći o borbi između Jevreja i Nemaca u pamfletu pod nazivom Der Weg zum Siege des Germanenthums über das Judenthum („Put do pobede germanizma nad judaizmom“). Optužio je Jevreje da su liberali, narod bez korena koji je judaizirao Nemce van spasenja. Godine 1879, Marove pristalice su osnovale „Ligu za antisemitizam“,^[16] koja se u potpunosti bavila antijevrejskim političkim delovanjem.

Zamerke na upotrebu termina, kao što je zastarela priroda termina „semitski“ kao rasnog termina, postavljaju se najmanje od 1930-ih.^[17]^[18]

Vidi još uredi

Reference uredi

^ Einleitung in die synchronistische universalhistorie, Gatterer, 1771. Described first ethnic use of the term Semitic by: (1) A note on the history of 'Semitic', 2003, by Martin Baasten; and (2) Taal-, land- en volkenkunde in de achttiende eeuw, 1994, by Han Vermeulen (in Dutch).
^ Liverani1995, str. 392: "A more critical look at this complex of problems should advise employing today the term and the concept "Semites" exclusively in its linguistic sense, and, on the other hand, tracing back every cultural fact to its concrete historical environment. The use of the term "Semitic" in culture, subject as it is to arbitrary simplifications, shows methodological risks which exceed by far the possibility of positive historical analysis. In any case the Semitic character of every cultural fact is a problem which in each situation must be ascenained in its limits and in its historical setting (both in time and in the social environment), and may not be assumed as obvious or traced back to a presumed "Proto-Semitic" culture, statically conceived."
^ On the use of the terms “(anti-)Semitic” and “(anti-) Zionist” in modern Middle Eastern discourse, Orientalia Suecana LXI Suppl. (2012) by Lutz Eberhard Edzard: "In linguistics context, the term "Semitic" is generally speaking non-controversial... As an ethnic term, "Semitic" should best be avoided these days, in spite of ongoing genetic research (which also is supported by the Israeli scholarly community itself) that tries to scientifically underpin such a concept."
^ Review of "The Canaanites" (1964) by Marvin Pope: "The term "Semitic," coined by Schlozer in 1781, should be strictly limited to linguistic matters since this is the only area in which a degree of objectivity is attainable. The Semitic languages comprise a fairly distinct linguistic family, a fact appreciated long before the relationship of the Indo-European languages was recognized. The ethnography and ethnology of the various peoples who spoke or still speak Semitic languages or dialects is a much more mixed and confused matter and one over which we have little scientific control."
^ Glöckner, Olaf; Fireberg, Haim (25. 9. 2015). Being Jewish in 21st-Century Germany. De Gruyter. str. 200. ISBN 978-3-11-035015-9. „...there is no Semitic ethnicity, only Semitic languages” CS1 održavanje: Format datuma (veza)
^ Anidjar 2008, str. (Foreword): "This collection of essays explores the now mostly extinct notion of Semites. Invented in the nineteenth century and essential to the making of modern conceptions of religion and race, the strange unity of Jew and Arab under one term, Semite (the opposing term was Aryan), and the circumstances that brought about its disappearance constitute the subject of this volume."
^ Anidjar 2008, str. 6: "To a large extent, or rather, to a quite complete extent, Semites were, like their ever so distant relatives – the Aryans – a concrete figment of the Western imagination, the peculiar imagination that concerns me in the chapters that follow. And just as the witches (the simultaneous efficacy and deep unreliability of "spectral evidence"), Semites were – I write in the past tense because Semites are a thing of the past, ephemeral beings long vanished as such – Semites were, then, something of a hypothesis (Chapter 1), contemporary with, and constitutive of, that other powerfully incarnate fiction named "secularism" (Chapter 2). Again, and as underscored by Edward Said, who raIsed anew the "Semitic question", the role of the imagination can hardly be downplayed."
^ ^a ^b Lewis, Bernard (1987). Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice . W W Norton & Co Inc. ISBN 978-0393304206. „The confusion between race and language goes back a long way, and was compounded by the rapidly changing content of the word "race" in European and later in American usage. Serious scholars have pointed out–repeatedly and ineffectually-‑that "Semitic" is a linguistic and cultural classification, denoting certain languages and in some contexts the literatures and civilizations expressed in those languages. As a kind of shorthand, it was sometimes retained to designate the speakers of those languages. At one time it might thus have had a connotation of race, when that word itself was used to designate national and cultural entities. It has nothing whatever to do with race in the anthropological sense that is now common usage. A glance at the present‑day speakers of Arabic, from Khartoum to Aleppo and from Mauritania to Mosul, or even of Hebrew speakers in the modern state of Israel, will suffice to show the enormous diversity of racial types.”
^ Baasten, Martin (2003). „A Note on the History of 'Semitic'”. Hamlet on a Hill: Semitic and Greek Studies Presented to Professor T. Muraoka on the Occasion of His Sixty-fifth Birthday. Peeters Publishers. str. 57—73. ISBN 9789042912151.
^ The Races of Europe by Carleton Stevens Coon. From Chapter XI: The Mediterranean World – Introduction: "This third racial zone stretches from Spain across the Straits of Gibraltar to Morocco, and thence along the southern Mediterranean shores into Arabia, East Africa, Mesopotamia, and the Persian highlands; and across Afghanistan into India."
^ "Semite". Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, Eleventh Edition.
^ „Anti-Semitism”. Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, Eleventh Edition. 8. 5. 2023. CS1 održavanje: Format datuma (veza)
^ Reprinted G. Karpeles (ed.), Steinthal H., Ueber Juden und Judentum, Berlin 1918, pp. 91 ff.
^ Published in the Journal Asiatique, 1859
^ Alex Bein, The Jewish Question: Biography of a World Problem, Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1990, p. 594, ISBN 0-8386-3252-1 – quoting the Hebrew Encyclopaedia Ozar Ysrael, (edited Jehuda Eisenstadt, London 1924, 2: 130ff)
^ Moshe Zimmermann, Wilhelm Marr: The Patriarch of Anti-Semitism, Oxford University Press, USA, 1987
^ Sevenster, Jan Nicolaas (1975). The Roots of Pagan Anti-Semitism in the Ancient World. Brill Archive. str. 1—2. ISBN 978-90-04-04193-6. „It has long been realised that there are objections to the term anti-Semitism and therefore an endeavour has been made to find a word which better interprets the meaning intended. Already in 1936 Bolkestein, for example, wrote an article on Het "antisemietisme" in de oudheid (Anti-Semitism in the ancient world) in which the word was placed between quotation marks and a preference was expressed for the term hatred of the Jews… Nowadays the term anti-Judaism is often preferred. It certainly expresses better than anti-Semitism the fact that it concerns the attitude to the Jews and avoids any suggestion of racial distinction, which was not or hardly, a factor of any significance in ancient times. For this reason Leipoldt preferred to speak of anti-Judaism when writing his Antisemitsmus in der alten Welt (1933). Bonsirven also preferred this word to Anti-Semitism, "mot moderne qui implique une théorie des races".”
^ Zimmermann, Moshe (5. 3. 1987). Wilhelm Marr: The Patriarch of Anti-Semitism. Oxford University Press, USA. str. 112. ISBN 978-0-19-536495-8. „The term 'anti-Semitism' was unsuitable from the beginning for the real essence of Jew-hatred, which remained anchored, more or less, in the Christian tradition even when it moved via the natural sciences, into racism. It is doubtful whether the term which was first publicized in an institutional context (the Anti-Semitic League) would have appeared at all if the 'Anti-Chancellor League,' which fought Bismarck's policy, had not been in existence since 1875. The founders of the new Organization adopted the elements of 'anti' and 'league,' and searched for the proper term: Marr exchanged the term 'Jew' for 'Semite' which he already favored. It is possible that the shortened form 'Sem' is used with such frequency and ease by Marr (and in his writings) due to its literary advantage and because it reminded Marr of Sem Biedermann, his Jewish employer from the Vienna period.” CS1 održavanje: Format datuma (veza)

Literatura uredi

Anidjar, Gil (2008). Semites: Race, Religion, Literature. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-5694-5.
Liverani, Mario (januar 1995). „Semites”. Ur.: Geoffrey W. Bromiley. The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. str. 387—392. ISBN 978-0-8028-3784-4. CS1 održavanje: Format datuma (veza)
„Adoption of the Working Definition”. American Jewish Committee. 2022. Pristupljeno 17. 7. 2022. CS1 održavanje: Format datuma (veza)
Bein, Alex (1990). The Jewish Question: Biography of a World Problem. Prevod: Harry Zohn. Rutherford, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. ISBN 978-0-8386-3252-9.
Consonni, Manuela (2022). „'Upping the Antis': Addressing the Conceptual Ambiguities Surrounding 'Antisemitism'”. Society. 59 (1): 25—33. S2CID 247172627. doi:10.1007/s12115-022-00665-4.
Chanes, Jerome A. (2004). Antisemitism: a Reference Handbook. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-209-7.
Falk, Avner (2008). Anti-Semitism: a History and Psychoanalysis of Contemporary Hatred. Westport, CT: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-313-35384-0.
Flannery, Edward H. (1985). The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-three Centuries of Antisemitism. Paulist Press. ISBN 978-0-8091-4324-5.
Flannery, Edward H. (2004). The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-Three Centuries of Antisemitism. Mahwah, NY: Paulist Press. ISBN 978-0-8091-4324-5.
Foxman, Abraham (2010). Jews and Money: The Story of a Stereotype. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-230-11225-4.
Frank, Daniel H.; Leaman, Oliver (2003). The Cambridge companion to medieval Jewish philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-65574-9.
Harzig, Christiane; Hoerder, Dirk; Shubert, Adrian (2003). The historical practice of diversity : transcultural interactions from the early modern Mediterranean to the postcolonial world. New York: Berghahn Books. ISBN 1-57181-377-2.
Johnson, Paul (1987). A History of the Jews. New York, NY: HarperCollins Publishers. ISBN 978-0-06-091533-9.
Johnston, William (1983). The Austrian Mind: An Intellectual and Social History, 1848–1938. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04955-0.
Judaken, Jonathan (2018). „Introduction”. The American Historical Review. 123 (4): 1122—1138. doi:10.1093/ahr/rhy024.
Laqueur, Walter (2006). The Changing Face of Antisemitism: From Ancient Times to the Present Day (1st izd.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530429-9.
Levy, Richard S., ur. (2005). Antisemitism: a Historical Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-85109-439-4.
Lewis, Bernard (1999). Semites and Anti-Semites: an Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice. W. W. Norton & Co. ISBN 978-0-393-31839-5.
Lipstadt, Deborah (2019). Antisemitism: Here and Now. Schocken Books. ISBN 978-0-80524337-6.
Lipstadt, Deborah (1994). Denying the Holocaust: the Growing Assault on Truth and Memory. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-452-27274-3.
Laurens, Henry (2002). La Question de Palestine. II. Fayard.
Majer, Diemut (2014). "Non-Germans" Under The Third Reich: The Nazi Judicial and Administrative System in Germany and Occupied Eastern Europe, with Special Regard to Occupied Poland, 1939–1945. Texas Tech University Press. ISBN 978-0896728370.
McLellan, David (1980). Marx before Marxism (PDF) (2d izd.). London: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-27883-3. Arhivirano (PDF) iz originala 2022-10-09. g.
Michael, Robert (2008). A History of Catholic Antisemitism: The Dark Side of the Church (na jeziku: engleski). Springer. ISBN 978-0-230-61117-7. Pristupljeno 15. 3. 2021. CS1 održavanje: Format datuma (veza)
Perry, Marvin; Schweitzer, Frederick M. (2002). Antisemitism: Myth and Hate from Antiquity to the Present. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-312-16561-1.
Perry, Marvin; Schweitzer, Frederick M. (2005). Antisemitism: Myth and Hate from Antiquity to the Present. New York, NY: Palgrave. ISBN 978-0-312-16561-1.
Poliakov, Léon. The History of Anti-Semitism, Volume 1: From the Time of Christ to the Court Jews, University of Pennsylvania Press: 2003
Poliakov, Léon. The History of Anti-Semitism, Volume 2: From Mohammad to the Marranos, University of Pennsylvania Press: 2003
Poliakov, Léon. The History of Anti-Semitism, Volume 3: From Voltaire to Wagner, University of Pennsylvania Press: 2003
Poliakov, Léon. The History of Anti-Semitism, Volume 4: Suicidal Europe 1870–1933, University of Pennsylvania Press: 2003
Poliakov, Léon (1997). "Anti-Semitism". Encyclopaedia Judaica (CD-ROM Edition Version 1.0). Ed. Cecil Roth. Keter Publishing House. ISBN 965-07-0665-8
Prager, Dennis; Telushkin, Joseph (2003) [1985]. Why the Jews? The Reason for Antisemitism (reprint izd.). Touchstone. ISBN 978-0-7432-4620-0.
Rattansi, Ali (2007). Racism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280590-4.
Rubenstein, Richard L.; Roth, John K. (2003). Approaches to Auschwitz: The Holocaust and Its Legacy. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0-664-22353-3.
Sachar, Howard Morley (1961). Aliyah: The People of Israel. World Publishing Company.
Tausch, Arno (2018). The Return of Religious Antisemitism? The Evidence from World Values Survey Data (17 November 2018). Available at SSRN
Tausch, Arno (2015). „Islamism and Anti-Semitism. Preliminary Evidence on Their Relationship from Cross-National Opinion Data”. S2CID 147452012. doi:10.2139/ssrn.2600825.
Tausch, Arno (2015). „The New Global Antisemitism: Implications from the Recent ADL-100 Data”. S2CID 59022284. doi:10.2139/ssrn.2549654.
Ury, Scott (2018). „Strange Bedfellows? Anti-Semitism, Zionism, and the Fate of "the Jews"”. The American Historical Review. 123 (4): 1151—1171. doi:10.1093/ahr/rhy030.
Anti-semitism Arhivirano 21 septembar 2011 na sajtu Wayback Machine entry by Gotthard Deutsch in the Jewish Encyclopedia, 1901–1906 ed.

Spoljašnje veze uredi

Semitic genetics
Semitic language family tree included under "Afro-Asiatic" in SIL's Ethnologue.
The south Arabian origin of ancient Arabs
The Edomite Hyksos connection Arhivirano 6 oktobar 2012 na sajtu Wayback Machine
The perished Arabs
The Midianites of the north
Ancient Semitic peoples (video)

[1] Einleitung in die synchronistische universalhistorie, Gatterer, 1771. Described first ethnic use of the term Semitic by: (1) A note on the history of 'Semitic', 2003, by Martin Baasten; and (2) Taal-, land- en volkenkunde in de achttiende eeuw, 1994, by Han Vermeulen (in Dutch).

[FOOTNOTELiverani1995392-2] Liverani1995, str. 392: "A more critical look at this complex of problems should advise employing today the term and the concept "Semites" exclusively in its linguistic sense, and, on the other hand, tracing back every cultural fact to its concrete historical environment. The use of the term "Semitic" in culture, subject as it is to arbitrary simplifications, shows methodological risks which exceed by far the possibility of positive historical analysis. In any case the Semitic character of every cultural fact is a problem which in each situation must be ascenained in its limits and in its historical setting (both in time and in the social environment), and may not be assumed as obvious or traced back to a presumed "Proto-Semitic" culture, statically conceived."

[Lutz-3] On the use of the terms “(anti-)Semitic” and “(anti-) Zionist” in modern Middle Eastern discourse, Orientalia Suecana LXI Suppl. (2012) by Lutz Eberhard Edzard: "In linguistics context, the term "Semitic" is generally speaking non-controversial... As an ethnic term, "Semitic" should best be avoided these days, in spite of ongoing genetic research (which also is supported by the Israeli scholarly community itself) that tries to scientifically underpin such a concept."

[Pope-4] Review of "The Canaanites" (1964) by Marvin Pope: "The term "Semitic," coined by Schlozer in 1781, should be strictly limited to linguistic matters since this is the only area in which a degree of objectivity is attainable. The Semitic languages comprise a fairly distinct linguistic family, a fact appreciated long before the relationship of the Indo-European languages was recognized. The ethnography and ethnology of the various peoples who spoke or still speak Semitic languages or dialects is a much more mixed and confused matter and one over which we have little scientific control."

[GlöcknerFireberg2015-5] Glöckner, Olaf; Fireberg, Haim (25. 9. 2015). Being Jewish in 21st-Century Germany. De Gruyter. str. 200. ISBN 978-3-11-035015-9. „...there is no Semitic ethnicity, only Semitic languages” CS1 održavanje: Format datuma (veza)

[FOOTNOTEAnidjar2008(Foreword)-6] Anidjar 2008, str. (Foreword): "This collection of essays explores the now mostly extinct notion of Semites. Invented in the nineteenth century and essential to the making of modern conceptions of religion and race, the strange unity of Jew and Arab under one term, Semite (the opposing term was Aryan), and the circumstances that brought about its disappearance constitute the subject of this volume."

[FOOTNOTEAnidjar20086-7] Anidjar 2008, str. 6: "To a large extent, or rather, to a quite complete extent, Semites were, like their ever so distant relatives – the Aryans – a concrete figment of the Western imagination, the peculiar imagination that concerns me in the chapters that follow. And just as the witches (the simultaneous efficacy and deep unreliability of "spectral evidence"), Semites were – I write in the past tense because Semites are a thing of the past, ephemeral beings long vanished as such – Semites were, then, something of a hypothesis (Chapter 1), contemporary with, and constitutive of, that other powerfully incarnate fiction named "secularism" (Chapter 2). Again, and as underscored by Edward Said, who raIsed anew the "Semitic question", the role of the imagination can hardly be downplayed."

[Lewis-8] Lewis, Bernard (1987). Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice . W W Norton & Co Inc. ISBN 978-0393304206. „The confusion between race and language goes back a long way, and was compounded by the rapidly changing content of the word "race" in European and later in American usage. Serious scholars have pointed out–repeatedly and ineffectually-‑that "Semitic" is a linguistic and cultural classification, denoting certain languages and in some contexts the literatures and civilizations expressed in those languages. As a kind of shorthand, it was sometimes retained to designate the speakers of those languages. At one time it might thus have had a connotation of race, when that word itself was used to designate national and cultural entities. It has nothing whatever to do with race in the anthropological sense that is now common usage. A glance at the present‑day speakers of Arabic, from Khartoum to Aleppo and from Mauritania to Mosul, or even of Hebrew speakers in the modern state of Israel, will suffice to show the enormous diversity of racial types.”

[9] Baasten, Martin (2003). „A Note on the History of 'Semitic'”. Hamlet on a Hill: Semitic and Greek Studies Presented to Professor T. Muraoka on the Occasion of His Sixty-fifth Birthday. Peeters Publishers. str. 57—73. ISBN 9789042912151.

[10] The Races of Europe by Carleton Stevens Coon. From Chapter XI: The Mediterranean World – Introduction: "This third racial zone stretches from Spain across the Straits of Gibraltar to Morocco, and thence along the southern Mediterranean shores into Arabia, East Africa, Mesopotamia, and the Persian highlands; and across Afghanistan into India."

[11] "Semite". Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, Eleventh Edition.

[12] „Anti-Semitism”. Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, Eleventh Edition. 8. 5. 2023. CS1 održavanje: Format datuma (veza)

[13] Reprinted G. Karpeles (ed.), Steinthal H., Ueber Juden und Judentum, Berlin 1918, pp. 91 ff.

[14] Published in the Journal Asiatique, 1859

[15] Alex Bein, The Jewish Question: Biography of a World Problem, Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1990, p. 594, ISBN 0-8386-3252-1 – quoting the Hebrew Encyclopaedia Ozar Ysrael, (edited Jehuda Eisenstadt, London 1924, 2: 130ff)

[16] Moshe Zimmermann, Wilhelm Marr: The Patriarch of Anti-Semitism, Oxford University Press, USA, 1987

[Sevenster1975-17] Sevenster, Jan Nicolaas (1975). The Roots of Pagan Anti-Semitism in the Ancient World. Brill Archive. str. 1—2. ISBN 978-90-04-04193-6. „It has long been realised that there are objections to the term anti-Semitism and therefore an endeavour has been made to find a word which better interprets the meaning intended. Already in 1936 Bolkestein, for example, wrote an article on Het "antisemietisme" in de oudheid (Anti-Semitism in the ancient world) in which the word was placed between quotation marks and a preference was expressed for the term hatred of the Jews… Nowadays the term anti-Judaism is often preferred. It certainly expresses better than anti-Semitism the fact that it concerns the attitude to the Jews and avoids any suggestion of racial distinction, which was not or hardly, a factor of any significance in ancient times. For this reason Leipoldt preferred to speak of anti-Judaism when writing his Antisemitsmus in der alten Welt (1933). Bonsirven also preferred this word to Anti-Semitism, "mot moderne qui implique une théorie des races".”

[MZ1987-18] Zimmermann, Moshe (5. 3. 1987). Wilhelm Marr: The Patriarch of Anti-Semitism. Oxford University Press, USA. str. 112. ISBN 978-0-19-536495-8. „The term 'anti-Semitism' was unsuitable from the beginning for the real essence of Jew-hatred, which remained anchored, more or less, in the Christian tradition even when it moved via the natural sciences, into racism. It is doubtful whether the term which was first publicized in an institutional context (the Anti-Semitic League) would have appeared at all if the 'Anti-Chancellor League,' which fought Bismarck's policy, had not been in existence since 1875. The founders of the new Organization adopted the elements of 'anti' and 'league,' and searched for the proper term: Marr exchanged the term 'Jew' for 'Semite' which he already favored. It is possible that the shortened form 'Sem' is used with such frequency and ease by Marr (and in his writings) due to its literary advantage and because it reminded Marr of Sem Biedermann, his Jewish employer from the Vienna period.” CS1 održavanje: Format datuma (veza)

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