Parapsihologija
Parapsihologija je pseudonauka koja pretenduje da proučava neistražene delove ljudskog uma. U parapsihologiju se ubrajaju još nedovoljno iztraženi fenomeni: telekineza, telepatija, empatija i manipulacija energije. Parapsihologija nije priznata oblast u psihologiji. Velika većina naučnika smatra da je parapsihologija pseudonauka delom zbog nedostatka ponovljivih empirijskih dokaza, a delom i zato što niz parapsiholoških tvrdnji jednostavno ne može biti istinit, „osim ako ostatak nauke nije tačan”.[1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8]
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Istraživanje parapsihologije uglavnom sprovode privatne institucije u nekoliko zemalja, a finansiraju se putem privatnih donacija,[9][10] i tema se gotovo nikada ne pojavljuje u glavnim naučnim časopisima. Većina radova o parapsihologiji objavljena je u malom broju sporednih časopisa.[11][12] Parapsihologija je bila kritikovana zbog nastavljanja istrage uprkos tome što nije mogla da pruži ubedljive dokaze za postojanje bilo kakvih psihičkih pojava nakon više od jednog veka istraživanja.[13][14]
Terminologija uredi
Izraz parapsihologija skovao je 1889. godine filozof Maks Desuar, kao nemačka „parapsihologija”.[15][16] Kasnije ga je Dž. B. Rajn usvojio tokom 1930-ih kao zamenu za termin psihička istraživanja kako bi ukazao na značajan pomak ka eksperimentalnoj metodologiji i akademskoj disciplini..[17] Izraz potiče od grč. παρά para sa značenjem „pored”, i psihologija.
U parapsihologiji, psi je nepoznati faktor ekstrasenzorne percepcije i psihokinetičkih iskustava koji nije objašnjen poznatim fizičkim ili biološkim mehanizmima.[18][19] Izraz je izveden iz grčkog ψ psi, 23. slova grčke abecede i početnog slova grčke reči ψυχή psyche, sa značenjem „um, duša”.[20][21] Izraz je skovao biolog Bertold P. Visner, a prvi put ga je koristio psiholog Robert Taules u članku iz 1942. godine objavljenom u Britanskom žurnalu psihologije.[22]
Reference uredi
- ^ Reber, Arthur; Alcock, James (2019). „Why parapsychological claims cannot be true”. Skeptical Inquirer. 43 (4): 8—10.
- ^ Gross, Paul R.; Levitt, Norman; Lewis, Martin W. (1996). The Flight from Science and Reason. New York City: New York Academy of Sciences. str. 565. ISBN 978-0801856761. „The overwhelming majority of scientists consider parapsychology, by whatever name, to be pseudoscience.”
- ^ Friedlander, Michael W. (1998). At the Fringes of Science. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. str. 119. ISBN 978-0-8133-2200-1. „Parapsychology has failed to gain general scientific acceptance even for its improved methods and claimed successes, and it is still treated with a lopsided ambivalence among the scientific community. Most scientists write it off as pseudoscience unworthy of their time.”
- ^ Pigliucci, Massimo; Boudry, Maarten (2013). Philosophy of Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem. Chicago, Illinois: University Of Chicago Press. str. 158. ISBN 978-0-226-05196-3. hdl:1854/LU-3161824. „Many observers refer to the field as a 'pseudoscience'. When mainstream scientists say that the field of parapsychology is not scientific, they mean that no satisfying naturalistic cause-and-effect explanation for these supposed effects has yet been proposed and that the field's experiments cannot be consistently replicated.”
- ^ Alcock, James (1981). Parapsychology-Science Or Magic?: A Psychological Perspective. Oxford, England: Pergamon Press. str. 194–196. ISBN 978-0080257730.
- ^ Hacking, Ian (1993). „Some reasons for not taking parapsychology very seriously”. Dialogue: Canadian Philosophical Review. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. 32 (3): 587—594. doi:10.1017/s0012217300012361.
- ^ Bierman, DJ; Spottiswoode, JP; Bijl, A (2016). „Testing for Questionable Research Practices in a Meta-Analysis: An Example from Experimental Parapsychology”. PLoS ONE. San Francisco, California: Public Library of Science. 11 (5): 1. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1153049B. PMC 4856278
. PMID 27144889. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0153049. „We consider [questionable research practices] in the context of a meta-analysis database of Ganzfeld–telepathy experiments from the field of experimental parapsychology. The Ganzfeld database is particularly suitable for this study, because the parapsychological phenomenon it investigates is widely believed to be nonexistent ... results are still significant (p = 0.003) with QRPs.”
- ^ Carroll, Sean (11. 5. 2016). „Thinking About Psychic Powers Helps Us Think About Science”. WIRED. New York City: Condé Nast. „Today, parapsychology is not taken seriously by most academics.”
- ^ „Koestler Parapsychology Unit”. University of Edinburgh. Pristupljeno 9. 3. 2009.
- ^ Odling-Smee, Lucy (1. 3. 2007). „The lab that asked the wrong questions”. Nature. 446 (7131): 10—11. Bibcode:2007Natur.446...10O. PMID 17330012. doi:10.1038/446010a. Pristupljeno 29. 6. 2007. „[Outside the US] the field is livelier. Britain is a lead player, with privately funded labs at the universities of Edinburgh, Northampton and Liverpool Hope, among others."..."The status of paranormal research in the United States is now at an all-time low, after a relative surge of interest in the 1970s. Money continues to pour from philanthropic sources to private institutions, but any chance of credibility depends on ties with universities, and only a trickle of research now persists in university labs.”
- ^ (Pigliucci, Boudry 2013) "Parapsychological research almost never appears in mainstream science journals."
- ^ (Odling-Smee 2007) "But parapsychologists are still limited to publishing in a small number of niche journals."
- ^ Cordón, Luis A. (2005). Popular Psychology: An Encyclopedia. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. str. 182. ISBN 978-0-313-32457-4. „The essential problem is that a large portion of the scientific community, including most research psychologists, regards parapsychology as a pseudoscience, due largely to its failure to move beyond null results in the way science usually does. Ordinarily, when experimental evidence fails repeatedly to support a hypothesis, that hypothesis is abandoned. Within parapsychology, however, more than a century of experimentation has failed even to conclusively demonstrate the mere existence of paranormal phenomenon, yet parapsychologists continue to pursue that elusive goal.”
- ^
- Hyman, R. (1986). „Parapsychological research: A tutorial review and critical appraisal” (PDF). Proceedings of the IEEE. 74 (6): 823—849. doi:10.1109/PROC.1986.13557. Pristupljeno 20. 9. 2008.
- Kurtz, Paul (1981), „Is Parapsychology a Science?”, Ur.: Kendrick Frazier, Paranormal Borderlands of Science, Prometheus Books, str. 5—23, ISBN 978-0-87975-148-7, „If parapsychologists can convince the skeptics, then they will have satisfied an essential criterion of a genuine science: the ability to replicate hypotheses in any and all laboratories and under standard experimental conditions. Until they can do that, their claims will continue to be held suspect by a large body of scientists.”
- Flew, Antony (1982). Grim, Patrick, ur. Parapsychology: Science or Pseudoscience? in Philosophy of Science and the Occult. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0873955720.
- Bunge, Mario (1991). „A skeptic's beliefs and disbeliefs”. New Ideas in Psychology. 9 (2): 131—149. doi:10.1016/0732-118X(91)90017-G.
- Blitz, David (1991). „The line of demarcation between science and nonscience: The case of psychoanalysis and parapsychology”. New Ideas in Psychology. 9 (2): 163—170. doi:10.1016/0732-118X(91)90020-M.
- Stein, Gordon (1996), The Encyclopedia of the Paranormal, Prometheus Books, str. 249, ISBN 978-1-57392-021-6, „Mainstream science is on the whole very dubious about ESP, and the only way that most scientists will be persuaded is by a demonstration that can be generally reproduced by neutral or even skeptical scientists. This is something that parapsychology has never succeeded in producing.”
- ^ Bringmann, Wolfgang G.; Lück, Helmut E. (15. 6. 1997). A Pictorial History of Psychology. Quintessence Pub. ISBN 978-0-86715-292-0.
- ^ Dessoir, Max (jun 1889). „Die Parapsychologie” [Parapsychology] (PDF). Sphinx (na jeziku: nemački). 7 (42): 341 — preko IAPSOP.
- ^ Melton, J. G. (1996). Parapsychology. In Encyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsychology. Farmington Hills, Michigan: Thomson Gale. ISBN 978-0-8103-9487-2.
- ^ Irwin, Harvey J.; Watt, Caroline A. (2007). An Introduction to Parapsychology (5th izd.). Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company. str. 6. ISBN 978-0786430598.
- ^ Wynn, Charles M.; Wiggins, Arthur W. (2001). Quantum Leaps in the Wrong Direction: Where Real Science Ends...and Pseudoscience Begins. Joseph Henry Press. str. 152. ISBN 978-0309073097.
- ^ „Parapsychology FAQ Page 1”. Parapsych.org. 28. 2. 2008. Arhivirano iz originala 26. 6. 2007. g. Pristupljeno 11. 4. 2014.
- ^ „Glossary of Psi (Parapsychological) Terms (L-R)”. Parapsych.org. Arhivirano iz originala 24. 8. 2010. g. Pristupljeno 11. 4. 2014.
- ^ Thouless, R. H. (1942). „Experiments on paranormal guessing”. British Journal of Psychology. London, England: Wiley-Blackwell. 33: 15—27. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1942.tb01036.x.
Literatura uredi
- Allison, Paul D. (1979). „Experimental Parapsychology as a Rejected Science”. The Sociological Review. 27 (suppl): 271—291. doi:10.1111/j.1467-954X.1979.tb00065.x.
- Alcock, James (1981). Parapsychology-Science Or Magic?: A Psychological Perspective. Pergamon Press.
- Bunge, Mario (1987). „Why Parapsychology Cannot Become a Science”. Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 10 (4): 576—577. doi:10.1017/s0140525x00054595.
- Hines, Terence (2003). Pseudoscience and the Paranormal. Prometheus Books. ISBN 1-57392-979-4
- Irwin, Harvey J.; Watt, Caroline. (2007). An Introduction to Parapsychology. McFarland & Company. str. 320. ISBN 978-0-7864-3059-8.
- Marks, David (2000). The Psychology of the Psychic (2nd Edition). New York: Prometheus Books. str. 336. ISBN 978-1-57392-798-7.
- Moore, E. Garth (1977). Believe It or Not: Christianity and Psychical Research. London: Mowbray. ISBN 0-264-66010-2
- Neher, Andrew (2011). Paranormal and Transcendental Experience: A Psychological Examination. Dover Publications.
- Randi, James (jun 1982). Flim-Flam! Psychics, ESP, Unicorns, and Other Delusions. Prometheus Books. str. 342. ISBN 978-0-345-40946-1.
- Randi, James; Arthur C. Clarke (1997). An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural. St. Martin's Griffin. str. 336. ISBN 978-0-312-15119-5.
- Sagan, Carl; Ann Druyan (1997). The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark. Ballantine Books. str. 349. ISBN 978-0-345-40946-1.
- Shepard, Leslie (2000). Encyclopedia of Occultism and Parapsychology. Thomson Gale. str. 1939. ISBN 978-0-8103-8570-2.
- Shermer, Michael (2003). „Psychic drift. Why most scientists do not believe in ESP and psi phenomena”. Scientific American. 288: 2.
- Wiseman, Richard; Watt, Caroline (2005). Parapsychology (International Library of Psychology). Ashgate Publishing. str. 501 pages. ISBN 978-0-7546-2450-9.
Spoljašnje veze uredi
- The Division of Perceptual Studies Arhivirano na sajtu Wayback Machine (8. maj 2014) at the University of Virginia School of Medicine.
- Institute of Noetic Sciences A nonprofit organization that sponsors research in parapsychology.
- Parapsychological Association An organization of scientists and scholars engaged in the study of psychic phenomena, affiliated with the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1969.
- Rhine Research Center A historical parapsychological research center featuring the first building ever made for experimental work in parapsychology. The Rhine Research Center is a hub for research and education in Parapsychology.
- Society for Psychical Research Founded in 1882, the SPR was the first society to conduct organised scholarly research into parapsychology and other human experiences that challenge contemporary scientific models. It continues its work today.
- Committee for Skeptical Inquiry Organization formed in 1976 to promote scientific skepticism and encourage the critical investigation of paranormal claims and parapsychology.
- James Randi Educational Foundation The James Randi Education Foundation(JREF) was founded to promote critical thinking in the areas of the supernatural and paranormal. The JREF has provided skeptical views in the area of parapsychology.
- FindArticles.com Index Large number of articles about parapsychology, from publications such as the Journal of Parapsychology and the Skeptical Inquirer.
- Parapsihologija na sajtu Curlie
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