Talmud
Talmud (hebr. תלמוד) predstavlja ogroman korpus jevrejskih tekstova prvenstveno teološke sadržine, ali sadrži i tekstove iz drugih oblasti života - bajke, legende, pravo, filozofiju, odredbe o održavanju higijene, o održavanju domaćinstva i raspolaganju imovinom, međuljudskim i socijalnim odnosima.[1][2] U njega su inkorporisane zbirke rasprava koje su vodili rabini o jevrejskom pravu, etici, običajima i istoriji.[3] Talmud se sastoji iz dva dela: Mišna, koji predstavlja prvi pisani pregled jevrejskom usmenog prava: i Gemara, koja predstavlja raspravu o Mišni i o srodnim Tanatičkim spisima koji često obrađuju raznorodne teme i široko tumače Tanah. Izrazi Talmud i Gemara se često koriste naizmenično. Gemara je osnova za sve kodifikacije rabinskog prava i često se citira u rabinskoj literaturi. Ceo Talmud se često tradicionalno naziva Šas (hebrejska abveracija izraza „šišah sedarim“ što se odnosi na „šest zapovesti“ Mišne).
Prema jevrejskom učenju, posredstvom Mojsija, jevrejskom narodu dat je dvostruki zakon: pisani i usmeni. Pisani zakon sastavljen je u pet knjiga od Mojsija, koje sačinjavaju glavni deo Starog zaveta. Svih pet knjiga Jevreji nazivaju: Tora. Usmeni zakon Mojsije nije napisao, nego ga je usmeno predao Jošui (u Daničićevom prevodu Starog zaveta pominje se pod imenom Isus Navin), a ovaj najstarijim Jevrejima, pa je na taj način od generacije do generacije predavan, kroz stoleća dopunjen i prilagođen novim običajima. Ovaj usmeni zakon, ogroman po svome obimu, kasnije je napisan. Na ovom trudnom i velikom poslu radilo je oko 2.500 rabina punih pet stotina godina, od 100. godina pre Hrista, do 400. godina posle Hristovog rođenja. Taj napisani usmeni zakon zove se: Talmud.[4]
Talmud je sveta knjiga za Jevreje. On sadržava ne samo religioznu nauku Jevreja, nego i građanske zakone: privatno pravo, porodično pravo i kazneno pravo. Talmud je na srpski preveo Eugen Verber, „Otokar Keršovani“, Rijeka, 1982,
Istorija
uredi
Prvobitno, jevrejska učenost je bila usmena i prenosila se sa generacije na generaciju. Rabini su izlagali i raspravljali o Tori (pisanoj Tori izraženoj u hebrejskoj Bibliji) i raspravljali o Tanahu bez upotrebe pisanih dela (osim samih biblijskih knjiga), iako su neki možda pravili privatne beleške (megillot setarim), na primer, sudskih odluka. Ova situacija se drastično promenila usled rimskog uništenja jevrejske zajednice i Drugog hrama 70. godine i posledičnog preokreta jevrejskih društvenih i pravnih normi. Pošto su rabini morali da se suoče sa novom stvarnošću — uglavnom judaizmom bez hrama (koji je služio kao centar učenja i učenja) i potpunom rimskom kontrolom nad Judejom, bez barem delimične autonomije — došlo je do naleta pravnog diskursa i stari sistem usmenog učenja nije mogao da se održi. U tom periodu rabinski govor je počeo da se beleži u pisanoj formi.[a][b]
Najstariji potpuni rukopis Talmuda, poznat kao Minhenski Talmud (Codex Hebraicus 95), datira iz 1342. godine i dostupan je na internetu.[v]
Kritika
urediIstoričar Majkl Levi Rodkinson, u svojoj knjizi Istorija Talmuda, napisao je da su klevetnici Talmuda, kako tokom, tako i posle njegovog formiranja, „različiti u svom karakteru, predmetima i postupcima“, a knjiga dokumentuje brojne kritičare i progonitelje, uključujući Nikolasa Donina, Johanesa Feferkorna, Johana Andreasa Ajzenmengera, frankiste i Avgusta Rolinga.[5] Mnogi napadi dolaze iz antisemitskih izvora kao što su Justinas Pranajtis, Elizabet Diling ili Dejvid Djuk. Kritike takođe dolaze iz hrišćanskih, muslimanskih,[6][7][8] i jevrejskih izvora,[9] kao i od ateista i skeptika.[10] Optužbe protiv Talmuda uključuju navodni:[5][11][12][13][14][15][16]
- Antihrišćanski ili anti-nejevrejski sadržaj[17][18][19][20]
- Apsurdan ili seksualno nemoralan sadržaj[21]
- Falsifikovanje Svetog pisma[22][23][24]
Branioci Talmuda ističu da su mnoge od ovih kritika, posebno one u antisemitskim izvorima, zasnovane na citatima koji su izvučeni iz konteksta, i na taj način pogrešno predstavljaju značenje Talmudovog teksta i njegov osnovni karakter kao detaljan zapis diskusija koje su sačuvane izjave raznih mudraca, a iz kojih izjave i mišljenja koja su odbačena nikada nisu editovana.
Ponekad je pogrešno predstavljanje namerno, a ponekad jednostavno zbog nemogućnosti da se shvate suptilne, a ponekad zbunjujuće i višestrane naracije u Talmudu. Neki citati koje su dali kritičari namerno izostavljaju odlomke kako bi generisali citate koji izgledaju napadno ili uvredljivo.[25][26]
Vidi još
urediNapomene
uredi- ^ See Strack, Hermann (1945). Introduction to the Talmud and Midrash. Jewish Publication Society. str. 11—12.. "[The Oral Torah] was handed down by word of mouth during a long period... The first attempts to write down the traditional matter, there is reason to believe, date from the first half of the second post-Christian century." Strack theorizes that the growth of a Christian canon (the New Testament) was a factor that influenced the rabbis to record the oral Torah in writing.
- ^ The theory that the destruction of the Temple and subsequent upheaval led to the committing of Oral Torah into writing was first explained in the Epistle of Sherira Gaon and often repeated. See, for example, Grayzel (1984). A History of the Jews. Penguin Books. str. 193..
- ^ At Babylonischer Talmud - BSB Cod.hebr. 95, [S.l. Frankreich, 1342, BSB-Hss Cod.hebr. 95]
Reference
uredi- ^ Steinsaltz, Adin (2009). „What is the Talmud?”. The Essential Talmud (30th anniversary izd.). Basic Books. ISBN 9780786735419.
- ^ Neusner, Jacob (2003). The Formation of the Babylonian Talmud. Wipf and Stock Publishers. str. ix. ISBN 9781592442195.
- ^ Safrai, S. (1969). „The Era of the Mishnah and Talmud (70–640)”. Ur.: Ben-Sasson, H.H. A History of the Jewish People. Prevod: Weidenfeld, George. Harvard University Press (objavljeno 1976). str. 379. ISBN 9780674397316.
- ^ Goldberg, Abraham (1987). „The Palestinian Talmud”. Ur.: Safrai, Shmuel. The Literature of the Jewish People in the Period of the Second Temple and the Talmud, Volume 3 The Literature of the Sages. Brill. str. 303—322. ISBN 9789004275133. doi:10.1163/9789004275133_008.
- ^ a b Rodkinson
- ^ Lewis, Bernard, Semites and anti-Semites: an inquiry into conflict and prejudice, W.W. Norton & Company, 1999, p. 134
- ^ Johnson, Paul, A history of the Jews, HarperCollins, 1988, p. 577
- ^ Arab attitudes to Israel, Yehoshafat Harkabi, pp. 248, 272
- ^ Such as Uriel da Costa, Israel Shahak, and Baruch Kimmerling
- ^ Such as Christopher Hitchens and Denis Diderot
- ^ Hyam Maccoby, Judaism on Trial
- ^ ADL report The Talmud in Anti-Semitic Polemics Arhivirano 2010-08-05 na sajtu Wayback Machine, Anti-Defamation League
- ^ Student, Gil – Rebuttals to criticisms of Talmud
- ^ Bacher, Wilhelm, "Talmud", article in Jewish Encyclopedia, Funk & Wagnalls Company, 1901
- ^ „Talmud”. JewishEncyclopedia.com.
- ^ „Talmud”. JewishEncyclopedia.com.
- ^ Fraade, str. 144–146
- ^ Kimmerling, Baruch (april 1997). „Images of Gentiles”. Journal of Palestine Studies. 26 (3): 96—98. JSTOR 2538163. doi:10.2307/2538163.
- ^ Siedman, str. 137
- ^ Cohn-Sherbok, p. 48
- ^ Steinsaltz, str. 268–270
- ^ See, for example, Uriel DaCosta, quoted by Nadler, p. 68
- ^ Cohn-Sherbok, p. 47
- ^ Wilhelm Bacher, "Talmud", article in Jewish Encyclopedia
- ^ „The Real Truth About The Talmud”. talmud.faithweb.com. Pristupljeno 2020-12-10.
- ^ ADL report, pp. 1–2
Literatura
uredi- Amram, David Werner (1909). The Makers of Hebrew Books in Italy. Philadelphia: J.H. Greenstone.
- Nathan T. Lopes Cardozo (1989). The Infinite Chain: Torah, Masorah, and Man. Philipp Feldheim. ISBN 0-944070-15-9.
- Aryeh Carmell (decembar 1986). Aiding Talmud study. Feldheim Publishers. ISBN 978-0-87306-428-6. Pristupljeno 29. 8. 2011. (includes Samuel ha-Nagid's Mevo ha-Talmud, see next section)
- Zvi Hirsch Chajes (2005). Mevo Hatalmud, transl. Jacob Shachter: The Students' Guide Through The Talmud. Yashar Books. ISBN 1-933143-05-3. Spoljašnja veza u
|title=(pomoć) - Dalin, D.G. (2012). The Myth of Hitler's Pope: Pope Pius XII And His Secret War Against Nazi Germany. Regnery Publishing. ISBN 978-1-59698-185-0. Pristupljeno 27. 8. 2017.
- Dan Cohn-Sherbok (1994). Judaism and other faiths. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-312-10384-2. Pristupljeno 29. 8. 2011.
- Fraade, Steven D, "Navigating the Anomalous: Non-Jews at the Intersection of Early Rabbinic Law and Narrative", in Laurence Jay Silberstein; Robert L. Cohn (1994). The Other in Jewish thought and history: constructions of Jewish culture and identity. NYU Press. str. 145—165. ISBN 978-0-8147-7990-3. Pristupljeno 29. 8. 2011.
- Gottheil, Richard; Broydé, Isaac (1906). „Leo X. (Giovanni De Medici)”. Jewish Encyclopedia. Pristupljeno 27. 8. 2017.
- Heller, Marvin J (2005). „Earliest Printings of the Talmud: From Bomberg to Schottenstein” (PDF). Yeshiva University Museum: 73. Arhivirano iz originala (PDF) 2016-08-15. g. Pristupljeno 2017-08-27.
- R. Travers Herford (2007). Christianity in Talmud and Midrash. KTAV Publishing House, Inc. ISBN 978-0-88125-930-8. Pristupljeno 29. 8. 2011.
- D. Landesman (1995). A Practical Guide to Torah Learning. ISBN 1-56821-320-4. (Jason Aronson, 1995).
- Emmanuel Lévinas; Annette Aronowicz (1994). Nine Talmudic readings. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-20876-7. Pristupljeno 29. 8. 2011.
- Levy, Richard S., Antisemitism: a historical encyclopedia of prejudice and persecution, Volume 2, ABC-CLIO, 2005. See articles: "Talmud Trials", "Entdecktes Judenthum", "The Talmud Jew", "David Duke", "August Rohling", and "Johannes Pfefferkorn".
- Hyam Maccoby; Jehiel ben Joseph (of Paris) (1993). Judaism on trial: Jewish-Christian disputations in the Middle Ages. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. ISBN 978-1-874774-16-7. Pristupljeno 29. 8. 2011. A compendium of primary source materials, with commentary.
- Maimonides Introduction to the Mishneh Torah (English translation Arhivirano na sajtu Wayback Machine (26. mart 2023))
- Maimonides. Introduction to the Commentary on the Mishnah. ISBN 1-880582-28-7. (Hebrew Fulltext), transl. Zvi Lampel (Judaica Press, 1998).
- Aaron Parry (2004). The Complete Idiot's Guide to The Talmud. Alpha Books. ISBN 1-59257-202-2.
- Rodkinson, Michael Levi, The history of the Talmud from the time of its formation, about 200 B.C., up to the present time, The Talmud Society, 1918
- Jonathan Rosen (2001). The Talmud and the Internet: A Journey Between Worlds. Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8264-5534-5. Pristupljeno 29. 8. 2011.
- Adin Steinsaltz (2006). The essential Talmud. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-08273-5. Pristupljeno 29. 8. 2011. Read more here. See also here.
- Adin Steinsaltz (1996). The Talmud: A Reference Guide. Random House. ISBN 0-679-77367-3.
Logika i metodologija
uredi- Samuel ha-Nagid, Mevo ha-Talmud
- Joseph ben Judah ibn Aknin, Mevo ha-Talmud
- Zerachiah Halevi, Sefer ha-Tzava
- Samson of Chinon, Sefer ha-Keritut
- Jacob Hagiz, Teḥillat Ḥochmah (included in most editions of Keritut)
- collective, ed. Abraham ibn Akra, Meharere Nemarim
- Joseph ibn Verga, She'erit Yosef
- Isaac Campanton, Darche ha-Talmud
- David ben Solomon ibn Abi Zimra, Kelale ha-Gemara
- Bezalel Ashkenazi, Kelale ha-Gemara
- Yeshu’ah b. Yosef ha-Levi, Halichot Olam
- Joseph Caro, Kelale ha-Gemara (commentary on Halichot Olam)
- Solomon Algazi. Yavin Shemu'ah (commentary on Halichot Olam. Spoljašnja veza u
|title=(pomoć))
- Yisrael Ya'akov Algazi, Ar'a de-Rabbanan
- Serillo, Samuel, Kelale Shemuel
- Horowitz, Isaiah, Shene Luchot ha-Berit (section on Torah she-be-al-Pe)
- Moses Chaim Luzzatto (1988). Derech Tevunot, translated into English as The Ways of Reason. Feldheim Publishers. ISBN 978-0-87306-495-8. Spoljašnja veza u
|title=(pomoć), Feldheim 1988,- same. Sefer ha-Higgayon, translated into English as The Book of Logic. ISBN 978-0-87306-707-2., Feldheim 1995,
- de Oliveira, Solomon, Darche Noam
- Malachi ha-Cohen, Yad Malachi
- Aryeh Leib HaCohen Heller, Shev Shema'tata
- Goitein, B., Kesef Nivhar
- Ezechia Bolaffi, Ben Zekunim vol. 1
- Moshe Amiel. Ha-Middot le-Ḥeqer ha-Halachah., vol. 1, vol. 2, vol. 3
Savremena naučna dela
uredi- Hanoch Albeck. Mavo la-talmudim.
- Daniel Boyarin, Sephardi Speculation: A Study in Methods of Talmudic Interpretation (Hebrew), Machon Ben Zvi: Jerusalem, 1989
- Yaakov Elman, "Order, Sequence, and Selection: The Mishnah’s Anthological Choices,” in David Stern, ed. The Anthology in Jewish Literature (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004) 53–80
- Y.N. Epstein, Mevo-ot le-Sifrut haTalmudim
- Uziel Fuchs. Talmudam shel Geonim: yaḥasam shel geone Bavel lenosaḥ ha-Talmud ha-Bavli. (The Geonic Talmud: the Attitude of Babylonian Geonim to the Text of the Babylonian Talmud): Jerusalem 2017
- David Weiss Halivni, Mekorot u-Mesorot (Jerusalem: Jewish Theological Seminary, 1982 on)
- Louis Jacobs, "How Much of the Babylonian Talmud is Pseudepigraphic?" Journal of Jewish Studies 28, No. 1 (1977), pp. 46–59
- Saul Lieberman (1950). Hellenism in Jewish Palestine. New York: Jewish Theological Seminary.
- Moses Mielziner. Introduction to the Talmud. ISBN 978-0-8197-0156-5.: repr. 1997, hardback , paperback ISBN 978-0-8197-0015-5
- Jacob Neusner (1992). Sources and Traditions: Types of Compositions in the Talmud of Babylonia. Atlanta: Scholars Press..
- Aviram Ravitzky. Aristotelian Logic and Talmudic Methodology. (Hebrew): Jerusalem 2009, ISBN 978-965-493-459-6
- Andrew Schumann. Talmudic Logic.: (London: College Publications 2012), ISBN 978-1-84890-072-1
- Strack, Herman L. and Stemberger, Günter, Introduction to the Talmud and Midrash. ISBN 978-0-567-09509-1., tr. Markus Bockmuehl: repr. 1992, hardback , paperback ISBN 978-0-8006-2524-5
O individualnim traktatima
- Moshe Benovitz, Berakhot chapter 1: Iggud le-Farshanut ha-Talmud (Hebrew, with English summary)
- Stephen Wald, Shabbat chapter 7: Iggud le-Farshanut ha-Talmud (Hebrew, with English summary)
- Aviad Stollman, Eruvin chapter 10: Iggud le-Farshanut ha-Talmud (Hebrew, with English summary)
- Aaron Amit, Pesachim chapter 4: Iggud le-Farshanut ha-Talmud (Hebrew, with English summary)
- Netanel Baadani, Sanhedrin chapter 5: Iggud le-Farshanut ha-Talmud (Hebrew, with English summary)
- Moshe Benovitz, Sukkah chapters 4–5: Iggud le-Farshanut ha-Talmud (Hebrew, with English summary)
Istorijska studija
- Shalom Carmy (ed.) Modern Scholarship in the Study of Torah: Contributions and Limitations Jason Aronson, Inc.
- Richard Kalmin (1994). Sages, Stories, Authors and Editors in Rabbinic Babylonia. Scholars Press. ISBN 978-0-7885-0045-9. Brown Judaic Studies
- David C. Kraemer, On the Reliability of Attributions in the Babylonian Talmud, Hebrew Union College Annual 60 (1989), pp. 175–90
- Lee Levine. Ma'amad ha-Hakhamim be-Eretz Yisrael. (Jerusalem: Yad Yizhak Ben-Zvi, 1985), (=The Rabbinic Class of Roman Palestine in Late Antiquity)
- Saul Lieberman (1950). Hellenism in Jewish Palestine. New York: Jewish Theological Seminary.
- John W. McGinley, 'The Written' as the Vocation of Conceiving Jewishly. ISBN 0-595-40488-X..
- David Bigman, Finding A Home for Critical Talmud Study Arhivirano na sajtu Wayback Machine (5. septembar 2004)
Spoljašnje veze
uredi
- Talmud na sajtu Curlie (jezik: engleski)
- Sefaria.org
- Jewish Encyclopedia: Talmud
- Jewish History: Talmud Arhivirano na sajtu Wayback Machine (18. novembar 2014), aish.com
- Talmud/Mishnah/Gemara, jewishvirtuallibrary.org
- Jewish Law Research Guide, University of Miami Law Library
- A survey of rabbinic literature by Ohr Somayach
- Introduction to the Talmud Arhivirano na sajtu Wayback Machine (2. septembar 2016) by Rabbi M. Taub
- Talmud translation, 13th-14th century, at E-codices