Kartografija
Kartografija (grč. Χάρτης - karta i graphein - pisati) je nauka koja se bavi izučavanjem i izradom karata i globusa. Karte su se tradicionalno izrađivale pomoću olovke i papira, ali napredak i rasprostranjenost računara je revolucionalizovao kartografiju. Većina karata komercijalnog kvaliteta se danas prave pomoću nekog od programa za izradu mapa koji spada u jednu od ovih osnovnih tipova; CAD, GIS, ili specijalizovani programi za ilustraciju mapa.
Karte predstavljaju pomoć u sagledavanju prostornih podataka. Prostorni podatak se prikuplja merenjem i može biti čuvan u bazi podataka, iz koje se može lako izvući za različite potrebe. Trenutna stremljenja u ovoj oblasti se udaljavaju od analognih metoda izrade mapa a prema kreiranju sve dinamičnije, interaktivne karte kojom se može digitalno manipulisati.
Kartografija kombinuje i umetnost i nauku, obuhvatajući upotrebu simbola kao predstavnike određenih geografskih fenomena i sposobnost sagledavanja sveta u apstraktnom proporcionalno umanjenom obliku. Kartografska premisa se zasniva na tome da je svet moguće meriti i da je na osnovu toga moguće napraviti pouzdanu predstavu ili model te stvarnosti.
Istorija uredi
Karte predstavljaju sastavni deo ljudske istorije. Nije poznato kada je nastala prva (možda pre 8.000 godina - ali svakako pre pisane reči).[1] Poznato je da su postojale u Evropskim kulturama, na Srednjem istoku, Kini, Indiji i drugim delovima sveta.
Najstarija sačuvana mapa se trenutno nalazi kao zidna slika drevnog turskog grada Čatal Hojuka koja je datirana kao nastala krajem 7 milenijuma p. n. e.[2]
Mapa mundi je generalni naziv kojim se imenuju evropske karte sveta iz Srednjeg veka. Poznato je za oko 1,100 ovakvih karata da postoje i dan danas. O njih, oko 900 je pronađeno kao ilustracija u rukopisima a preostale su napravljene kao pojedinačni dokumenti[3].
U dobu velikih geografskih otkrića od 15. veka do 17. veka, kartografi su precrtavali ranije karte (od kojih su neke nisu menjane vekovima) i crtali svoje bazirane na opažanjima istraživača i novim tehnikama geometarskog merenja. Otkriće kompasa, teleskopa i sekstanta omogućilo je povećanje tačnosti prikaza na karti.
Podela kartografije uredi
S obzirom na karakter delatnosti kojom se bavi postoje:
- naučna kartografija (kartografska nauka) - u koju spadaju
- teoretska
- eksperimentalna, i
- proizvodna kartografija (kartografska tehnika)[4]
Moguće su i druge podele kartografije. Tako npr. prema vrsti sadržaja koji se prikazuje, a koji je bio predmet istraživanja, moguće je kartografiju podeliti na:
- geografsku
- opštegeografsku (topografska, horografska itd.)
- tematsku (geološka, ekonomska, istorijska itd.), i
- kosmičku.
Reference uredi
- ^ Članak: Najstarije poznate karte Arhivirano na sajtu Wayback Machine (20. avgust 2007), Pristupljeno 8. 4. 2013.
- ^ Najstarija karta Arhivirano na sajtu Wayback Machine (22. avgust 2007), Pristupljeno 8. 4. 2013.
- ^ J.B.Harley and David Woodward: The History of Cartography Volume 1: Cartography in Prehistoric, Ancient, and Medieval Europe and the Mediterranean, Chicago and London, University of Chicago Press. 1987. ISBN 978-0-226-31633-8.
- ^ M. Peterca, N. Radošević, S. Milisavljević, F. Racetin: Kartografija, Vojnogeografski institut, Beograd, 1974.
Literatura uredi
- Sindik, Ilija (1927). „Kornelijeva karta Boke kotorske (prilog istorijskoj kartografiji Balkanskog poluostrva)”. Glasnik Geografskog društva. 13: 86—93.
- Sindik, Ilija (1930). „Fiziogeografski elementi na starim kartama jugoslovenskih zemalja”. Glasnik Geografskog društva. 16: 122—139.
- Sindik, Ilija (1931). „Dubrovačka republika na kartama XVII vijeka”. Zbornik iz dubrovačke prošlosti: Milanu Rešetaru o 70-oj godišnjici života prijatelji i učenici. Dubrovnik: Jadran. str. 281—289.
- Sindik, Ilija (1932). „Zadatak i značaj istoriske kartografije”. Glasnik Geografskog društva. 18: 36—45.
- Ovenden, Mark (2007). Transit Maps of the World. New York, New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-311265-5.
- MacEachren, A.M. (1994). Some Truth with Maps: A Primer on Symbolization & Design. University Park: The Pennsylvania State University. ISBN 978-0-89291-214-8.
- Monmonier, Mark (1993). Mapping It Out. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-53417-6.
- Kraak, Menno-Jan; Ormeling, Ferjan (2002). Cartography: Visualization of Spatial Data. Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-088890-7.
- Peterson, Michael P. (1995). Interactive and Animated Cartography. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-079104-7.
- Slocum, T. (2003). Thematic Cartography and Geographic Visualization. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-035123-4.
- Ralph E Ehrenberg (11. 10. 2005). Mapping the World: An Illustrated History of Cartography. National Geographic. str. 256. ISBN 978-0-7922-6525-2.
- J. B. Harley (1987). David Woodward, ur. The History of Cartography Volume 1: Cartography in Prehistoric, Ancient, and Medieval Europe and the Mediterranean. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-31633-8.
- J. B. Harley; David Woodward (1992). The History of Cartography Volume 2, Book 1: Cartography in the Traditional Islamic and South Asian Societies. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-31635-2.
- J. B. Harley; David Woodward (1994). The History of Cartography Volume 2, Book 2: Cartography in the Traditional East and Southeast Asian Societies. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-31637-6.
- David Woodward; G. Malcolm Lewis (1998). The History of Cartography Volume 2, Book 3: Cartography in the Traditional African, American, Arctic, Australian, and Pacific Societies [Full text of the Introduction by David Woodward and G. Malcolm Lewis]. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-90728-4.
- David Woodward (2007). The History of Cartography Volume 3: Cartography in the European Renaissance. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-90733-8.
- Mark Monmonier (2015). The History of Cartography Volume 6: Cartography in the Twentieth Century. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226534695.
- Matthew Edney; Mary S. Pedley. The History of Cartography Volume 4: Cartography in the European Enlightenment. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-31633-8.
- Roger J. P. Kain; et al. The History of Cartography Volume 5: Cartography in the Nineteenth Century. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.
- Monmonier, Mark (1991). How to Lie with Maps . Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-53421-3.
- Wood, Denis (1992). The Power of Maps. New York/London: The Guilford Press. ISBN 978-0-89862-493-9.
- Bagrow, L. (1986). History of Cartography. revised by R. A. Skelton. Transaction Publishers.
- Crawford, P. V. (1973). „The perception of graduated squares as cartographic symbols”. The Cartographic Journal. 10 (2): 85—88. doi:10.1179/caj.1973.10.2.85.
- Edney, Matthew H.; Pedley, Mary S. (ur.). „Cartography in the European Enlightenment”. The History of Cartography. 4. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.
- ESRI (2004). ESRI Cartography: Capabilities and Trends. Redlands.
- Harley, J. B.; Woodward, David, ur. (1987). „Cartography in Prehistoric, Ancient, and Medieval Europe and the Mediterranean”. The History of Cartography. 1. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-31633-8.
- Harley, J. B.; Woodward, David, ur. (1987). „Cartography in the Traditional Islamic and South Asian Societies”. The History of Cartography. II—1. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-31635-2.
- Harley, J. B.; Woodward, David, ur. (1987). „Cartography in the Traditional East and Southeast Asian Societies”. The History of Cartography. II—2. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-31637-6.
- Harley, J. B.; Woodward, David, ur. (1987). „Cartography in the Traditional African, American, Arctic, Australian, and Pacific Societies”. The History of Cartography. II—3. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-90728-4.
- „Harvard Graduate School of Design”. 2005. Arhivirano iz originala 2006-06-16. g.
- Imus, D.; Dunlavey, P (2002). Back to the Drawing Board: Cartography vs the Digital Workflow. Hood, Oregon: MT.
- Jeer, S. (1997). Traditional Color Coding for Land Uses. American Planning Association. str. 4—5.
- Kain, Roger J. P (ur.). „Cartography in the 19th century”. The History of Cartography. 5. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.
- MacEachren, A.M. (1995). How Maps Work. New York: The Guilford Press.
- „Map Imitations”. Library and Archives Canada. Arhivirano iz originala 2016-03-22. g. Pristupljeno 2007-04-25.
- Monmonier, Mark (1991). How to Lie with Maps. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-53421-3.
- Monmonier, Mark, ur. (2015). „Cartography in the Twentieth Century”. The History of Cartography. 6. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-53469-5.
- Olson, Judy M. (1975). „Experience and the improvement of cartographic communication”. The Cartographic Journal. 12 (2): 94—108. doi:10.1179/caj.1975.12.2.94.
- Phillips, R.; De Lucia, A.; Skelton, A. (1975). „Some Objective Tests of the Legibility of Relief Maps”. The Cartographic Journal. 12: 39—46. doi:10.1179/caj.1975.12.1.39.
- Phillips, R.; Noyes, L. (1980). „A Comparison of Color and Visual Texture as Codes for use as Area Symbols on Relief Maps”. Ergonomics. 23 (12): 1117—28. PMID 28080606. doi:10.1080/00140138008924818.
- Pickles, John (2003). A History of Spaces: Cartographic Reason, Mapping, and the Geo-Coded World. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-14497-1.
- Rice, M.; Jacobson, R.; Golledge, R.; Jones, D.; Pallavaram, S. (2003). „Object Size Discrimination and Non-visual Cartographic Symbolization”. Proceedings, American Congress on Surveying and Mapping (ACSM) Annual Conference. 29: 1—12.
- Robinson, A.H. (1953). Elements of Cartography. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
- Robinson, Arthur H. (1982). Early Thematic Mapping in the History of Cartography. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
- Singaravélou, P.; Argounès, F. (2021). Mapping the World. Perspectives from Asian Cartography. Singapore: National Library of Singapore.
- Sullivan, David (2000), A translation of the full text of the Mercator atlas of 1595 (PDF), Arhivirano iz originala (PDF) 2016-03-10. g.
- Wilford, John Noble (2000). The Mapmakers. Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0-375-70850-3.
- Woodward, David, ur. (1987). „Cartography in the European Renaissance”. The History of Cartography. 3. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-90733-8.
- „A Mathematical Method for Visualizing Ptolemy's India in Modern GIS Tools”.
Spoljašnje veze uredi
- Kratka istorija kartografije: Kako su naši preci mapirali svet (TV Istorija - Zvanični kanal)
- Mapping History Arhivirano na sajtu Wayback Machine (10. mart 2007) – a learning resource from the British Library
- Antique Maps by Carl Moreland and David Bannister – complete text of the book, with information both on mapmaking and on mapmakers, including short biographies of many cartographers
- Concise Bibliography of the History of Cartography Arhivirano na sajtu Wayback Machine (26. oktobar 2011), Newberry Library