Praindoevropljani

Praindoevropljani su bili hipotetska preistorijska etnolingvistička skupina Evroazije koja je govorila praindoevropskim jezikom, pretkom indoevropskih jezika prema jezičkoj rekonstrukciji.

Saznanja o njima uglavnom dolaze iz te jezičke rekonstrukcije, zajedno sa materijalnim dokazima iz arheologije i arheogenetike. Praindoevropljani su vjerovatno živjeli tokom kasnog neolita, odnosno otprilike u 4. milenijumu prije n. e. Današnja nauka ih smješta u Pontsko-kaspijsku stepu u istočnoj Evropi (današnja Ukrajina i južna Rusija).^[1]^[2] Pojedini arheolozi proširuje vrijeme postojanja praindoevropskog jezika na srednji neolit (5500 do 4500. godina prije n. e.) ili čak u rani neolit (7500 do 5500. godina prije n. e.) i predlažu hipoteze o alternativnim lokacijama.

Početkom 2. milenijuma prije n. e. potomci Praindoevropljana raširili su se širom Evroazije, uključujući Anadoliju (Hetiti), Egej (preci mikenske Grčke), sjever Evrope (Kultura linearne keramike), obode srednje Azije (Jamna kultura) i južni Sibir (Afanasjevska kultura).^[3]

Kultura i religija uredi

Koristeći se jezičkom rekonstrukcijom od starih indoevropskih jezika kao što su latinski i sanskrt, utvrđene su hipotetske karakteristike praindoevropskog jezika. Pretpostavljajući da ove jezičke karakteristike održavaju kulturu i okruženje Praindoevropljana, sljedeće osobine kulture i životne sredine su naširoko predložene:

pastoralizam, uključujući pripitomljena goveda, konje i pse;^[4]
poljoprivreda i uzgajanje žitarica, uključujući tehnologiju koja se obično pripisuje kasno-neolitskim poljoprivrednim zajednicama, npr. plug;^[5]
klima sa sniježnim zimama;^[6]
prevoz vodom ili preko vode;^[4]
čvrst točak,^[4]^[7] koji se koristi za vagone, ali još ne i kočije sa točkovima na prečagama;^[8]
poštovanje božanstva neba;^[5] *Dyḗus Ph₂tḗr (doslovno „Otac Nebo”; > vedski sanskrt Dyáuṣ Pitṛ́, starogrčki Ζεύς (πατήρ)), vokativ *dyeu ph₂ter (> latinski Iūpiter, ilirski Deipaturos);^[9]^[10]
usmena epska poezija ili stihovi pjesama koji su koristili fraze poput vječna slava (*ḱléwos ń̥dʰgʷʰitom)^[11] i točak sunca (*sh₂uens kʷekʷlos);^[12]
patrilinearni sistem srodstva zasnovan na odnosima između muškaraca.^[13]

Vidi još uredi

Arijevci (ili Arijci)

Reference uredi

^ Anthony, David W.; Ringe, Don (januar 2015). „The Indo-European Homeland from Linguistic and Archaeological Perspectives”. Annual Review of Linguistics (na jeziku: engleski). 1 (1): 199—219. doi:10.1146/annurev-linguist-030514-124812. Arhivirano iz originala 27. 03. 2019. g. Pristupljeno 2. 4. 2020.
^ Anthony, David W. (2010). The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World (na jeziku: engleski). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-3110-4. Pristupljeno 2. 4. 2020.
^ Mallory, J. P.; Adams, Douglas Q. (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture (na jeziku: engleski). Taylor & Francis. str. 4 and 6 (Afanasevo), 13 and 16 (Anatolia), 243 (Greece), 127—128 (Corded Ware), and 653 (Yamna). ISBN 978-1-884964-98-5. Pristupljeno 2. 4. 2020.
^ ^a ^b ^v Watkins 2000.
^ ^a ^b Fagan, Brian M.; Beck, Charlotte; Michaels, George; Scarre, Christopher; Silberman, Neil Asher (1996). The Oxford Companion to Archaeology (na jeziku: engleski). Oxford University Press. str. 347. ISBN 978-0-19-507618-9. Pristupljeno 2. 4. 2020.
^ Watkins 2000, "The Indo-Europeans knew snow in their homeland; the word sneig^wh- is nearly ubiquitous.".
^ Holm, Hans J. (2020). The Earliest Wheel Finds, Their Archeology and Indo-European Terminology in Time and Space, and Early Migrations around the Caucasus | Archaeolingua (na jeziku: engleski). Series Minor no. 43, Archaeolingua Alapítvány. ISBN 978-615-5766-29-9. Pristupljeno 2. 4. 2020.
^ Mallory, J. P.; Adams, D. Q. (2006). The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World (na jeziku: engleski). Oxford: Oxford University Press. str. 249. ISBN 978-0-19-928791-8. Pristupljeno 2. 4. 2020.
^ Watkins 2000, "Yet, for the Indo-European-speaking society, we can reconstruct with certainty the word for “god,” *deiw-os, and the two-word name of the chief deity of the pantheon, *dyeu-pəter- (Latin Iūpiter, Greek Zeus patēr, Sanskrit Dyauṣ pitar, and Luvian Tatis Tiwaz).".
^ Barfield, Owen (1967). History in English Words (na jeziku: engleski). SteinerBooks. ISBN 978-0-940262-11-9. Pristupljeno 2. 4. 2020.
^ Watkins, Calvert (1995). How to Kill a Dragon: Aspects of Indo-European Poetics (na jeziku: engleski). Oxford University Press. str. 173. ISBN 978-0-19-802471-2. Pristupljeno 2. 4. 2020.
^ Beekes, Robert Stephen Paul (2011). Comparative Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction (na jeziku: engleski). John Benjamins Publishing. str. 42. ISBN 978-90-272-1185-9. Pristupljeno 2. 4. 2020.
^ Watkins 2000, "A large number of kinship terms have been reconstructed. They are agreed in pointing to a society that was patriarchal, patrilocal (the bride leaving her household to join that of her husband’s family), and patrilineal (descent reckoned by the male line). “Father” and “head of the household” are one: pǝter-, with his spouse, the māter-.".

Literatura uredi

Mallory, J. P. (1991). In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology, and Myth (na jeziku: engleski). Thames and Hudson. Pristupljeno 2. 4. 2020.
Watkins, Calvert (2000), „Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans”, The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (na jeziku: engleski) (4 izd.), Houghton Mifflin Company, Arhivirano iz originala 1. 3. 2009. g.
Anthony, David W. (2007), The Horse, the Wheel and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World, Princeton University Press
Anthony, David; Ringe, Don (2015), „The Indo-European Homeland from Linguistic and Archaeological Perspectives”, Annual Review of Linguistics, 1 (1): 199—219, doi:10.1146/annurev-linguist-030514-124812
Anthony, David W. (2019), „Archaeology, Genetics, and Language in the Steppes: A Comment on Bomhard”, Journal of Indo-European Studies: 1—23
Anthony, David (2020), „Ancient DNA, Mating Networks, and the Anatolian Split”, Ur.: Serangeli, Matilde; Olander, Thomas, Dispersals and Diversification: Linguistic and Archaeological Perspectives on the Early Stages of Indo-European, BRILL, str. 31—42, ISBN 9789004416192
Anthony, David (2020a). „Migration, Ancient DNA, and Bronze Age Pastoralists from the Eurasian Steppes”. Ur.: Daniels, Megan. Homo Migrans: Modeling Mobility and Migration in Human History. IEMA Distinguished Monograph Series. Albany: SUNY Press.
Bojtar, Endre (1999), Foreword to the Past: A Cultural History of the Baltic People, Central European University Press
Bomhard, Allan (2019), „The Origins of Proto-Indo-European: The Caucasian Substrate Hypothesis”, Journal of Indo-European Studies, 47 (1–2)
Bouckaert, Remco; Lemey, Philippe; Dunn, Michael; Greenhill, Simon J.; Alekseyenko, Alexander V.; Drummond, Alexei J.; Gray, Russell D.; Suchard, Marc A.; Atkinson, Quentin D. (2012). „Mapping the Origins and Expansion of the Indo-European Language Family”. Science. 337 (6097): 957—960. Bibcode:2012Sci...337..957B. PMC 4112997  . PMID 22923579. doi:10.1126/science.1219669.
Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca (2000). Genes, peoples, and languages. Farrar Straus & Giroux. ISBN 978-0-86547-529-8.
Chang, Will; Cathcart, Chundra; Hall, David; Garrett, Andrew (2015). "Ancestry-Constrained Phylogenetic Analysis Supports the Indo-European Steppe Hypothesis". Language, 91, Number 1, March 2015: 194–244.
Damgaard, Peter de Barros (2018), „The First Horse herders and the Impact of Early Bronze Age Steppe expansions into Asia”, Science, 360 (6396), PMC 6748862  , PMID 29743352, doi:10.1126/science.aar7711
Gray, Russell D.; Atkinson, Quentin D. (2003). „Language-tree divergence times support the Anatolian theory of Indo-European origin”. Nature. 426 (6965): 435—439. Bibcode:2003Natur.426..435G. PMID 14647380. S2CID 42340. doi:10.1038/nature02029.
Grolle, Johann (12. 5. 2018), „Invasion aus der Steppe”, Der Spiegel CS1 održavanje: Format datuma (veza)
Haak W, et al. (2015). „Massive migration from the steppe was a source for Indo-European languages in Europe”. Nature. 522 (7555): 207—211. Bibcode:2015Natur.522..207H. PMC 5048219  . PMID 25731166. arXiv:1502.02783  . doi:10.1038/nature14317.
Kassian, Alexei S., Mikhail Zhivlov, George Starostin, Artem A. Trofimov, Petr A. Kocharov, Anna Kuritsyna and Mikhail N. Saenko (2021). "Rapid radiation of the inner Indo-European languages: an advanced approach to Indo-European lexicostatistics". Linguistics, Volume 59 Issue 4.
Kloekhorst, Alwin (2008), „Some Indo-Uralic Aspects of Hittite” (PDF), The Journal of Indo-European Studies, Архивирано из оригинала (PDF) 21. 01. 2021. г., Приступљено 02. 07. 2023
Kortlandt, Frederik (2010), An outline of proto-indo-european (working paper) (PDF)
Kozintsev, Alexander (2019), „Proto-Indo-Europeans: The Prologue”, Journal of Indo-European Studies, 47 (3–4)
Kristiansen, Kristian; Allentoft, Morten E.; Frei, Karin M.; Iversen, Rune; Johannsen, Niels N.; Kroonen, Guus; Pospieszny, Łukasz; Price, T. Douglas; Rasmussen, Simon; Sjögren, Karl-Göran; Sikora, Martin (2017). „Re-theorising mobility and the formation of culture and language among the Corded Ware Culture in Europe”. Antiquity (на језику: енглески). 91 (356): 334—347. ISSN 0003-598X. doi:10.15184/aqy.2017.17  .
Kristiansen, Kristian (2020), „The Archaeology of Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Anatolian: Locating the Split”, Ур.: Serangeli; Olander, Dispersals and Diversification: Linguistic and Archaeological Perspectives on the Early-Stages of Indo-European, BRILL, стр. 157
Kroonen, Guus; Barjamovic, Gojko; Peyrot, Michael (2018), Linguistic supplement to Damgaard et al. 2018: Early Indo-European languages, Anatolian, Tocharian and Indo-Iranian
Lazaridis I, et al. (2016). „Genomic insights into the origin of farming in the ancient Near East”. Nature. 536 (7617): 419—424. Bibcode:2016Natur.536..419L. ISSN 0028-0836. PMC 5003663  . PMID 27459054. doi:10.1038/nature19310.
Mallory, J. P. (1996), Fagan, Brian M., ур., The Oxford Companion to Archaeology, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-507618-9
Mallory, James P. (1997), „The homelands of the Indo-Europeans”, Ур.: Blench, Roger; Spriggs, Matthew, Archaeology and Language, I: Theoretical and Methodological Orientations, London: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-11760-9 .
Mallory, J. P.; Adams, D. Q. (1997), Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture, Taylor & Francis
Mallory, J. P.; Adams, D. Q. (2006), The Oxford introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European world (Repr. изд.), Oxford [u.a.]: Oxford Univ. Press, ISBN 9780199287918
Mallory, J .P. (2013), „Twenty-first century clouds over Indo-European homelands” (PDF), Journal of Language Relationship, 9: 145—154, S2CID 212689004, doi:10.31826/jlr-2013-090113
Mallory, J. P.; Dybo, A.; Balanovsky, O. (2020), „The Impact of Genetics Research on Archaeology and Linguistics in Eurasia”, Russian Journal of Genetics, 55 (12): 1472—1487, S2CID 210914627, doi:10.1134/S1022795419120081
Mascarenhas, Desmond D.; Raina, Anupuma; Aston, Christopher E.; Sanghera, Dharambir K. (2015), „Genetic and Cultural Reconstruction of the Migration of an Ancient Lineage”, BioMed Research International, 2015: 651415, PMC 4605215  , PMID 26491681, doi:10.1155/2015/651415 
Narasimhan, Vagheesh M.; Anthony, David; Mallory, James; Reich, David (2018), The Genomic Formation of South and Central Asia, doi:10.1101/292581 
Narasimhan, Vagheesh M.; Patterson, N.J.; Moorjani, Priya; Rohland, Nadin; et al. (2019), „The Formation of Human Populations in South and Central Asia”, Science, 365 (6457): eaat7487, PMC 6822619  , PMID 31488661, doi:10.1126/science.aat7487
Nichols, Johanna (1997), „The Epicenter of the Indo-European Linguistic Spread”, Ur.: Blench, Roger; Spriggs, Matthew, Archaeology and Language I: Theoretical and Methodological Orientations, Routledge
Nichols, Johanna (1999), „The Eurasian Spread Zone and the Indo-European Dispersal”, Ur.: Blench, Roger; Spriggs, Matthew, Archaeology and Language II: Correlating archaeological and Linguistic Hypotheses, Routledge
Parpola, Asko (2015), The Roots of Hinduism. The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilisation, Oxford University Press
Pereltsvaig, Asya; Lewis, Martin W. (2015), „Searching for Indo-European origins”, The Indo-European Controversy, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9781107054530
Piazza, Alberto; Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi (2006). „Diffusion of genes and languages in human evolution”. Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on the Evolution of Language. str. 255—266. Arhivirano iz originala 11. 12. 2008. g. Pristupljeno 02. 07. 2023.
Reich, David (2018). Who We Are and How We Got Here: Ancient DNA and the new science of the human past (na jeziku: engleski). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-255438-3.
Ringe, Donald A. (2006), From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic, Linguistic history of English, v. 1, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-955229-0
Shinde, Vasant; Narasimhan, Vagheesh M.; Rohland, Nadin; Mallick, Swapan; et al. (2019), „An Ancient Harappan Genome Lacks Ancestry from Steppe Pastoralists or Iranian Farmers”, Cell, 179 (3): 729—735.e10, PMC 6800651  , PMID 31495572, doi:10.1016/j.cell.2019.08.048
Trautmann, Thomas (2005). The Aryan Debate. Oxford University Press.
Vybornov, Aleksandr (2016), „Initial stages of two Neolithisation models in the Lower Volga basin”, Documenta Praehistorica, 43: 161—166, doi:10.4312/dp.43.7 
Wang CC, et al. (2018), „The genetic prehistory of the Greater Caucasus”, bioRxiv, OCLC 8640486228
Wang CC, et al. (2019), „Ancient human genome-wide data from a 3000-year interval in the Caucasus corresponds with eco-geographic regions”, Nature Communications, 10 (1): 590, Bibcode:2019NatCo..10..590W, PMC 6360191  , PMID 30713341, doi:10.1038/s41467-018-08220-8
Wells, Spencer; Read, Mark (2002). The journey of man: a genetic odyssey . Princeton University Press. str. 168. ISBN 978-0-691-11532-0.
Zvelebil (1995), „Indo-European origins and the agricultural transition in Europe”, Whither Archaeology?: papers in honour of Evžen Neustupný
Beckwith, Christopher I. (2013). „The Actual Achievements of Early Indo-Europeans, in Accurate Historical Context (2013)”. Beckwith, Christopher I. University of California. 4. S2CID 131553744. doi:10.21237/C7clio4119062.

Spoljašnje veze uredi

Mediji vezani za članak Praindoevropljani na Vikimedijinoj ostavi
Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture (1997)
Indo-European Roots Index na sajtu Wayback Machine (arhivirano 22 januar 2009) from The American Heritage Dictionary
Kurgan culture
Ancient DNA and the Indo-European Question
R1a and R1b as markers of the Proto-Indo-European expansion: a review of ancient DNA evidence Arhivirano 8 februar 2017 na sajtu Wayback Machine

[1] Anthony, David W.; Ringe, Don (januar 2015). „The Indo-European Homeland from Linguistic and Archaeological Perspectives”. Annual Review of Linguistics (na jeziku: engleski). 1 (1): 199—219. doi:10.1146/annurev-linguist-030514-124812. Arhivirano iz originala 27. 03. 2019. g. Pristupljeno 2. 4. 2020.

[2] Anthony, David W. (2010). The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World (na jeziku: engleski). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-3110-4. Pristupljeno 2. 4. 2020.

[3] Mallory, J. P.; Adams, Douglas Q. (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture (na jeziku: engleski). Taylor & Francis. str. 4 and 6 (Afanasevo), 13 and 16 (Anatolia), 243 (Greece), 127—128 (Corded Ware), and 653 (Yamna). ISBN 978-1-884964-98-5. Pristupljeno 2. 4. 2020.

[FOOTNOTEWatkins2000-4] v Watkins 2000.

[Mallory_1996-5] Fagan, Brian M.; Beck, Charlotte; Michaels, George; Scarre, Christopher; Silberman, Neil Asher (1996). The Oxford Companion to Archaeology (na jeziku: engleski). Oxford University Press. str. 347. ISBN 978-0-19-507618-9. Pristupljeno 2. 4. 2020.

[FOOTNOTEWatkins2000"The_Indo-Europeans_knew_snow_in_their_homeland;_the_word_'''sneig<sup>w</sup>h-'''_is_nearly_ubiquitous."-6] Watkins 2000, "The Indo-Europeans knew snow in their homeland; the word sneig^wh- is nearly ubiquitous.".

[7] Holm, Hans J. (2020). The Earliest Wheel Finds, Their Archeology and Indo-European Terminology in Time and Space, and Early Migrations around the Caucasus | Archaeolingua (na jeziku: engleski). Series Minor no. 43, Archaeolingua Alapítvány. ISBN 978-615-5766-29-9. Pristupljeno 2. 4. 2020.

[Mallory_2006-8] Mallory, J. P.; Adams, D. Q. (2006). The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World (na jeziku: engleski). Oxford: Oxford University Press. str. 249. ISBN 978-0-19-928791-8. Pristupljeno 2. 4. 2020.

[FOOTNOTEWatkins2000"Yet,_for_the_Indo-European-speaking_society,_we_can_reconstruct_with_certainty_the_word_for_“god,”_*deiw-os,_and_the_two-word_name_of_the_chief_deity_of_the_pantheon,_*dyeu-pəter-_(Latin_Iūpiter,_Greek_Zeus_patēr,_Sanskrit_[[Dyaus_Pita|Dyauṣ_pitar]],_and_Luvian_Tatis_Tiwaz)."-9] Watkins 2000, "Yet, for the Indo-European-speaking society, we can reconstruct with certainty the word for “god,” *deiw-os, and the two-word name of the chief deity of the pantheon, *dyeu-pəter- (Latin Iūpiter, Greek Zeus patēr, Sanskrit Dyauṣ pitar, and Luvian Tatis Tiwaz).".

[10] Barfield, Owen (1967). History in English Words (na jeziku: engleski). SteinerBooks. ISBN 978-0-940262-11-9. Pristupljeno 2. 4. 2020.

[11] Watkins, Calvert (1995). How to Kill a Dragon: Aspects of Indo-European Poetics (na jeziku: engleski). Oxford University Press. str. 173. ISBN 978-0-19-802471-2. Pristupljeno 2. 4. 2020.

[12] Beekes, Robert Stephen Paul (2011). Comparative Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction (na jeziku: engleski). John Benjamins Publishing. str. 42. ISBN 978-90-272-1185-9. Pristupljeno 2. 4. 2020.

[FOOTNOTEWatkins2000"A_large_number_of_kinship_terms_have_been_reconstructed._They_are_agreed_in_pointing_to_a_society_that_was_patriarchal,_patrilocal_(the_bride_leaving_her_household_to_join_that_of_her_husband’s_family),_and_patrilineal_(descent_reckoned_by_the_male_line)._“Father”_and_“head_of_the_household”_are_one:_'''pǝter-''',_with_his_spouse,_the_'''māter-'''."-13] Watkins 2000, "A large number of kinship terms have been reconstructed. They are agreed in pointing to a society that was patriarchal, patrilocal (the bride leaving her household to join that of her husband’s family), and patrilineal (descent reckoned by the male line). “Father” and “head of the household” are one: pǝter-, with his spouse, the māter-.".

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]