Sovjetski disidenti
Sovjetski disidenti bili su ljudi koji se nisu slagali sa određenim karakteristikama sovjetske ideologije ili sa njenom celinom i koji su bili voljni da iznose svoje kritičke stavove.[1] Termin disident se koristio u Sovjetskom Savezu (SSSR) u periodu od sredine 1960-ih do pada komunizma. Koristio se za označavanje malih grupa marginalizovanih intelektualaca čiji su izazovi, od skromnih do radikalnih do sovjetskog režima, naišli na zaštitu i ohrabrenje dopisnika,[2] i tipično krivično gonjenje ili druge oblike ućutkivanja od strane vlasti. Prateći etimologiju pojma, smatra se da disident „sedi odvojeno“ od režima.[3] Termin disident je u SSSR počeo da se odnosi na pojedinca za čiji se nekonformizam smatralo da je za dobrobit društva.[4][5][6] Najuticajnija grupa disidenata bila je poznata kao sovjetski pokret za ljudska prava.
Sovjetski disidenti koji su kritikovali državu u većini slučajeva suočili su se sa zakonskim sankcijama predviđen prema sovjetskom Krivičnom zakoniku[7] i dat im je izbor između izgnanstva u inostranstvo (uz oduzimanje sovjetskog državljanstva), duševne bolnice ili radnog logora.[8] Konkretno, antisovjetsko političko ponašanje, otvoreno protiv vlasti, demonstracije koja su za cilj imale određenu reformu, pisanje knjiga koje kritikuju SSSR definisano je kod nekih osoba kao istovremeno krivično delo (npr. kršenje članova 70 ili 190-1), simptom (obmana reformizma) i dijagnoza (na primer usporena šizofrenija).[9]
1950-1960-ih
urediTokom 1950-ih, sovjetski disidenti su počeli da šalju svoje kritike na Zapad slanjem dokumenata i izjava stranim diplomatskim misijama u Moskvi.[10] Tokom 1960-ih, sovjetski disidenti su često izjavljivali da su prava koja im je vlada Sovjetskog Saveza uskratila univerzalna prava, koja imaju svi bez obzira na rasu, veru i nacionalnost.[11] U avgustu 1969. godine, na primer, Inicijalna grupa za odbranu građanskih prava u SSSR- u apelovala je na Komitet Ujedinjenih nacija za ljudska prava da odbrani ljudska prava koja su gazile sovjetske vlasti u nizu suđenja.[12]
Neke od glavnih prekretnica disidentskog pokreta 1960-ih su:
- Javna čitanja poezije na Trgu Majakovskog u centru Moskve, gde su često kružili neki od podzemnih spisa koji su kritični prema sistemu; neka od ovih javnih čitanja je rabila policija;
- Suđenje pesniku Josifu Brodskom koji je optužen za 'parazitizam' zato što nije bio zvanično zaposlen i osuđen je 1963. na interno izgnanstvo; stekao je široku simpatiju i podršku u disidentskim i poludisidentskim krugovima, uglavnom kroz beleške sa suđenja koje je sastavila Frida Vigdorova
- Suđenje i izricanje presude piscima Andreju Sinjavskom i Juliju Danijelu koji su uhapšeni 1965. zbog objavljivanja koautorskih dela u inostranstvu pod pseudonimima i osuđeni na radni logor i progonstvo; protivljenje ovom suđenju dovelo je do kampanje peticija za njihovo oslobađanje koju su potpisale hiljade ljudi, od kojih su mnogi nastavili aktivnije učestvovati u disidentskom pokretu
- Tihe demonstracije na Puškinovom trgu u Moskvi koje je pokrenuo Aleksandar Jesenjin-Volpin na dan sovjetskog ustava 5. decembra 1965. sa plakatima koji pozivaju vlasti da poštuju soptveni ustav
- Kampanje peticija protiv relativizovanja Staljinovog terora nakon smene Nikite Hruščova i ponovnog oživljavanja kulta Staljinove ličnosti u delovima sovjetske vladine birokratije
- U aprilu 1968. pokretnut je podzemni časopis „Hronika aktuelnih događaja“, koji je dokumentovao kršenja ljudskih prava i protestne aktivnosti širom Sovjetskog Saveza
- Objavljivanje na Zapadu prvog političkog eseja Andreja Saharova „Razmišljanja o progresu i intelektualnoj slobodi“ u proleće i leto 1968.
- Protestni skup protiv sovjetske invazije na Čehoslovačku radi suzbijanja Praškog proleća; organizovanje 25. avgusta 1968. na Crvenom trgu u Moskvi od strane osam disidenata, uključujući Viktora Fajnberga, Nataliju Gorbanjevsku, Pavela Litvinova, Vladimira Dremljugu i dr.
- Osnivanje Inicijative za ljudska prava 1969. godine
1970-ih
urediDisidenti su postali značajno zastupljeniji u javnom životu i medijima na Zapadu tokom 1970-ih.[13] Helsinški sporazum je inspirisao disidente u Sovjetskom Savezu, Čehoslovačkoj, Mađarskoj i Poljskoj da otvoreno protestuju protiv kršenja ljudskih prava od strane vlada.[14] Sovjetski disidenti su zahtevali da sovjetske vlasti sprovode svoje obaveze polazeći od Helsinškog sporazuma sa istim žarom i na isti način na koji su ranije otvoreni legalisti očekivali da se sovjetske vlasti striktno pridržavaju slova njihovog ustava.[15] Disidentski ruski i istočnoevropski intelektualci koji su pozivali na poštovanje Helsinškog sporazuma bili su podvrgnuti zvaničnoj represiji.[16] Prema sovjetskom disidentu Leonidu Pljušču, Moskva je iskoristila Helsinški pakt o bezbednosti da poboljša svoju ekonomiju, istovremeno povećavajući potiskivanje političkih neistomišljenika.[17] Zatvoreno je 50 pripadnika sovjetskih Helsinških grupa.[18] Slučajeve političkih zatvorenika i zatvorenika savesti u Sovjetskom Savezu objaviljivali su Amnesty International 1975.[19] i Komitet za odbranu sovjetskih političkih zatvorenika 1975.[20] i 1976.[21][22]
Predsednik SAD Džimi Karter je u svom inauguracionom obraćanju 20. januara 1977. najavio da će ljudska prava biti centralna tačka spoljne politike tokom njegove administracije.[23] Karter je u februaru poslao pismo Andreju Dmitrijeviču Saharovu u kojem je izrazio podršku njegovom stavu o ljudskim pravima.[23][24] Nakon Karterovog pisma Saharovu, SSSR je upozorio na pokušaje „mešanja“ u njegove poslove pod „izmišljenim izgovorom odbrane ljudskih prava.[25] Zbog Karterovog otvorenog pokazivanja podrške sovjetskim disidentima, KGB je uspeo da poveže neslaganje sa američkim imperijalizmom sugerišući da su takav protest i podrška disidentima paravan za američku špijunažu u Sovjetskom Savezu.[26] Prema Dmitriju Volkogonovu i Haroldu Šukmanu, Andropov je bio taj koji je odobrio brojna suđenja aktivistima za ljudska prava[27].[28]
Dobrovoljna i nedobrovoljna emigracija omogućila je vlastima da se oslobode mnogih političkih aktivnih intelektualaca, uključujući pisce Valentina Turčina, Georgija Vladimova, Vladimira Vojnoviča, Leva Kopeleva, Vladimira Maksimova, Nauma Koržavina, Vasilija Aksjonova, psihijatra Marinu Vojhansku i druge.[29]:194[30] Hronika aktuelnih događaja obuhvatila je 424 politička suđenja, u kojima su osuđene 753 osobe, a niko od optuženih nije oslobođen; pored toga, 164 osobe su proglašene neuračunljivim i poslate na prinudno lečenje u psihijatrijsku bolnicu.[31]
Prema sovjetskim disidentima i zapadnim kritičarima, KGB je rutinski slao disidente psihijatrima gde im je davana dijagnoza. To je rađeno kako bi sr izbegla sramotna javna suđenja i diskreditovalo disidentstvo kao proizvod bolesnih umova.[32][33] Uz obrazloženje da su politički disidenti u Sovjetskom Savezu bili psihotični i obmanuti, zatvarani su u psihijatrijske bolnice i lečeni neurolepticima.[34] Zatvaranje političkih neistomišljenika u psihijatrijske ustanove postalo je uobičajena praksa.[35] Ta tehnika bi se mogla nazvati „medikalizacijom“ disidentstva ili psihijatrijskim terorom, već poznatim oblikom represije primenjenom u Sovjetskom Savezu koji je iskoišćen protiv Leonida Pljušča, Petra Grigorenka i mnogih drugih disidenata.[36] Konačno, mnogi ljudi u to vreme su bili skloni da veruju da su disidenti nenormalni ljudi čije je slanje u duševne bolnice bilo sasvim opravdano.[29]:96[37] U to vreme sovjetski disident Vladimir Bukovski napisao je Novu mentalnu bolest u SSSR-u: Opozicija objavljeno na francuskom,[38] nemačkom,[39] italijanskom,[40] španskom[41] i (u koautorstvu sa Semjonom Gluzmanom) Priručnik o psihijatriji za disidente objavljen na ruskom,[42] engleskom,[43] francuskom,[44] italijanskom,[45] nemačkom,[46] danskom.[47]
Represija nad Helsinškim posmatračkim grupama
urediU periodu 1977–1979 i ponovo 1980–1982, KGB je reagovao na rad organizacija Helsinki Watch Group, u Kijevu, Vilnjusu, Tbilisiju i Erevanu tako što je pokrenuo hapšenja velikih razmera i osudio svoje članove na zatvor, radni logor, interno izgnanstvo i psihijatrijski zatvor.
Od članova Moskovske helsinške grupe, 1978. godine njeni članovi Jurij Orlov, Vladimir Slepak i Anatolij Ščaranski osuđeni su na dugotrajne logore i unutrašnji progon zbog „antisovjetske agitacije i propagande“ i izdaje. Još jedan talas hapšenja usledio je početkom 1980-ih: Malva Landa, Viktor Nekipelov, Leonard Ternovski, Feliks Serebrov, Tatjana Osipova, Anatolij Marčenko i Ivan Kovaljov.[48]:249 Sovjetske vlasti su nekim aktivistima ponudile „priliku“ da emigriraju. Ljudmila Aleksejeva je emigrirala 1977. godine. Osnivači Moskovske helsinške grupe Mihail Bernštam, Aleksandar Korčak, Vitalij Rubin takođe su emigrirali, a Petru Grigorenku je oduzeto sovjetsko državljanstvo dok se lečio u inostranstvu.[49]
Ukrajinska helsinška grupa je pretrpela teške represije tokom 1977–1982, sa povremeno višestrukim zatvorskim kaznama izrečenim nizu članova.[48]:250–251Ukrajinska helsinška grupa je do 1983. imala 37 članova, od kojih su 22 bila u logorima, 5 je bilo u izbeglištvu, 6 je emigriralo na Zapad, 3 su puštena i živela su u Ukrajini, 1 (Mihajlo Melnik) je izvršio samoubistvo.[50]
Litvanska Helsinška grupa doživela je dva talasa zatvaranja članova zbog antisovjetskih aktivnosti i „organizovanja verskih procesija“: Viktoras Petkus je osuđen 1978. godine; drugi su usledili 1980–1981: Algirdas Statkevičius, Vitautas Skuodis, Mečislovas Jurevičius i Vitautas Vaičiunas.[48]:251–252
Tokovi disidentstva
urediPokret za građanska i ljudska prava
urediPočevši od 1960-ih, ranih godina Brežnjevljeve stagnacije, disidenti u Sovjetskom Savezu su sve više usmeravali svoju pažnju na pitanja građanskih i na kraju ljudskih prava. Borba za građanska i ljudska prava bila je fokusirana na pitanja slobode izražavanja, slobode savesti, slobode emigracije, kaznene psihijatrije i teškog položaja političkih zatvorenika. Odlikovala ga je nova otvorenost neslaganja, briga za zakonitost, odbacivanje svake 'podzemne' i nasilne borbe. [51]
Pokreti nacija
urediNekoliko nacionalnih ili etničkih grupa koje su bile deportovane pod Staljinom formirale su pokrete za povratak u svoje domovine. Konkretno, krimski Tatari su nameravali da se vrate na Krim, Turci Meshetinci u Južnu Gruziju, a etnički Nemci su imali za cilj da se presele duž reke Volge u blizini Saratova.
Tatarima je uskraćeno pravo da se vrate na Krim, iako su zakoni koji su opravdavali njihovu deportaciju poništeni. Njihovo prvo kolektivno pismo sa pozivom na restauraciju datira iz 1957. godine.[52] Početkom 1960-ih, krimski Tatari su počeli da osnivaju inicijativne grupe u mestima gde su bili prisilno preseljeni. Predvođeni Mustafom Džemilevom, osnovali su sopstvenu demokratsku i decentralizovanu organizaciju, koja se smatra jedinstvenom u istoriji nezavisnih pokreta u Sovjetskom Savezu.[53]:131 :7
Emigraciona pokreti
urediEmigracioni pokreti u Sovjetskom Savezu uključivali su pokret sovjetskih Jevreja da emigriraju u Izrael i Povolških Nemaca da emigriraju u Zapadnu Nemačku.
Sovjetskim Jevrejima su vlasti bivšeg Sovjetskog Saveza i drugih zemalja istočnog bloka rutinski odbijale dozvolu da emigriraju.[54] Pokret za pravo na emigraciju formiran je šezdesetih godina prošlog veka, što je takođe dovelo do oživljavanja interesovanja za jevrejsku kulturu. Razlog odbijanja je privukao značajnu pažnju na Zapadu.
Građani nemačkog porekla koji su živeli u baltičkim državama pre njihove aneksije 1940. i potomci nemačkih doseljenika na Volgi iz osamnaestog veka takođe su formirali pokret za napuštanje Sovjetskog Saveza.[53]:132[55]:67Vlada Zapadne Nemačke je 1972. godine sklopila sporazum sa sovjetskim vlastima koji je dozvoljavao između 6.000 i 8.000 ljudi da emigrira u Zapadnu Nemačku svake godine do kraja decenije. Kao rezultat toga, skoro 70.000 etničkih Nemaca je napustilo Sovjetski Savez do sredine 1980-ih.[55]:67
Slično, Jermeni su malo emigrirali. Do sredine 1980-ih, preko 15.000 Jermena je emigriralo.[55]:68
Rusija se poslednjih godina u velikoj meri promenila u društvenoj, ekonomskoj i političkoj sferi. Migracije sa ruskog su postale manje nasilne i prvenstveno rezultat slobodne volje koju izražava pojedinac.[56]
Religijski pokreti
urediVerski pokreti u SSSR-u uključivali su ruske pravoslavne, katoličke i protestantske pokrete. Oni su se fokusirali na slobodu ispoljavanja vere i otpor mešanju države u njihove unutrašnje stvari i pitanja.:8
Ruski pravoslavni pokret ostao je relativno mali. Katolički pokret u Litvaniji bio je deo većeg litvanskog nacionalnog pokreta. Protestantske grupe koje su se protivile antireligijskim državnim direktivama uključivale su baptiste, adventiste i pentekostalce. Slično jevrejskom i nemačkom disidentskom pokretu, mnogi u nezavisnom pentekostnom pokretu su težili emigraciji.
Nacionalni pokreti
urediNacionalni pokreti su uključivali ruske nacionalne disidente, kao i disidentske pokrete iz Ukrajine, Litvanije, Letonije, Estonije, Gruzije i Jermenije.
Među nacijama koje su živele na svojim teritorijama sa statusom republika u okviru Sovjetskog Saveza, prvi pokret koji se pojavio 1960-ih bio je ukrajinski pokret. Njena težnja bila je da se odupre rusifikaciji Ukrajine i da insistira na jednakim pravima i demokratizaciji republike.:7
U Litvaniji je nacionalni pokret 1970-ih bio usko povezan sa katoličkim pokretom.:7
U književnosti i kulturi
urediNekoliko značajnih primera pisaca disidenta odigralo je značajnu ulogu za širi disidentski pokret. To uključuje progon Osipa Mandeljštama, Borisa Pasternaka, Mihaila Bulgakova i Josifa Brodskog, kao i objavljivanje Arhipelaga Gulag Aleksandra Solženjicina.
U književnom svetu bilo je na desetine pisaca i publicista koji su učestvovali u disidentskom pokretu, uključujući Vasilija Aksjonova, Arkadija Belinkova, Leonida Borodina, Josifa Brodskog, Georgija Vladimova, Vladimira Vojnoviča, Aleksandra Galiča, Venedikta Jerofejeva, Aleksandra Zinovjeva, Leva Kopeleva, Naum Kopeljeva, Vladimira Maksimova, Viktora Nekrasova, Andreja Sinjavskog, Aleksandra Solženjicina i Varlama Šalamova.[57]
U ranom Sovjetskom Savezu, neprilagođeni akademici su prognani preko takozvanih brodova filozofa.[58]
Druge grupe
urediDruge grupe su uključivale socijaliste, pokrete za socioekonomska prava (posebno nezavisne sindikate), kao i pokrete žena, ekoloških i mirovnih pokreta.[53]:132 :3–18
Disidenti i Hladni rat
urediOdgovarajući na pitanje otkaznika (osoba kojima je odbijena dozvola da napuste SSSR), Kongres Sjedinjenih Američkih Država usvojio je Džekson-Venik amandman 1974. Odredba saveznog zakona Sjedinjenih Država imala je za cilj da utiče na trgovinske odnose SAD sa zemljama komunističkog bloka koje ograničavaju slobodu emigracije i druga ljudska prava.
Osam zemalja članica Varšavskog pakta potpisalo je Helsinški sporazum u avgustu 1975. godine. Sporazum je uključivao opsežne klauzule o ljudskim pravima.[59]:99–100
Kada je Džimi Karter stupio na dužnost 1976. godine, proširio je svoj savetodavni krug i uključio kritičare američko-sovjetskog detanta. On je izrazio podršku češkom disidentskom pokretu poznatom kao Povelja 77 i javno je izrazio zabrinutost zbog sovjetskog tretmana disidenta Aleksandra Ginzburga i Andreja Saharova. Karter je 1977. primio istaknutog disidenta Vladimira Bukovskog u Beloj kući, tvrdeći da nije nameravao da bude stidljiv u svojoj podršci ljudskim pravima.[60]:73
Godine 1979. osnovan je US Helsinki Watch Committee, koji je finansirala Ford fondacija. Osnovan po ugledu na Moskovsku Helsinšku grupu i slične posmatračke grupe u sovjetskom bloku. Za cilj je imao da nadgleda poštovanje odredbi Helsinškog sporazuma o ljudskim pravima i da pruži moralnu podršku onima koji se bore za taj cilj unutar sovjetskog bloka. Delovao je kao kanal za informacije o represiji u Sovjetskom Savezu i lobirao je kod kreatora politike u SAD da nastave da pritiskaju ovo pitanje kod sovjetskih lidera.[61]:460
Američki predsednik Ronald Regan pripisao je stav da je „brutalni tretman sovjetskih disidenata bio posledica birokratske inercije“.[62] On je 14. novembra 1988. održao je sastanak sa Andrejem Saharovim u Beloj kući i rekao da sovjetska kršenja ljudskih prava ometaju napredak i da će to nastaviti da čini sve dok problem ne bude „potpuno eliminisan“.[63][64]
Andrej Saharov je rekao: „Svi žele da imaju posao, da budu oženjeni, da imaju decu, da budu srećni, ali disidenti moraju biti spremni da vide kako su njihovi životi uništeni a oni koji su im dragi povređeni. Kada pogledam svoju situaciju i situaciju moje porodice i to moje zemlje, shvatam da stvari postaju sve gore“.[65]
Prema sovjetskom disidentu Viktoru Davidovu, totalitarnim sistemima nedostaju mehanizmi da promene ponašanje vladajuće grupe iznutra.[66] Pokušaji iznutra suzbijaju se represijom, što zahteva od međunarodnih organizacija za ljudska prava i stranih vlada da izvrše spoljni pritisak za promene.[66]
Odabrana dela disidenata
uredi- Alexeyeva, Ludmilla (1977—1978). „The human rights movement in the USSR”. Survey. 23 (4): 72—85.
- Alekseeva, Liudmila (1980). The diversity of Soviet dissent: ideologies, goals and direction, 1965–1980.
- Alexeyeva, Ludmilla (1987) [1985]. Soviet dissent: contemporary movements for national, religious, and human rights (2 izd.). Middletown, Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press. ISBN 978-0-8195-6176-3.
- Amalrik, Andrei (1982). Zapiski dissidenta [Dissident's Notes] (na jeziku: ruski). Ann Arbor: Ardis.
- Amalrik, Andrei (1. 3. 1978). „Soviet dissidents and the American press: a reply”. Columbia Journalism Review. 16 (6): 63.
- Boukovsky, Vladimir (1995). Jugement à Moscou – un dissident dans les archives du Kremlin [Judgement in Moscow – a dissident in the Kremlin archives] (na jeziku: francuski). Paris: Robert Laffont. ISBN 978-2-221-07460-2.
- Brodsky, Joseph (19. 9. 1974). „An appeal for Vladimir Maramzin”. The New York Review of Books. 21 (14).
- Brodsky, Joseph (23. 1. 1975). „Victims”. The New York Review of Books. 21 (21).
- Brodsky, Joseph (5. 3. 1981). „Nadezhda Mandelstam (1899–1980)”. The New York Review of Books. 28 (3).
- Brodsky, Joseph (mart 1992). „Poetry as a form of resistance to reality”. Publications of the Modern Language Association of America. 107 (2): 220—225. JSTOR 462635. S2CID 164173456. doi:10.2307/462635.
- Bukovsky, Vladimir (1978). To build a castle: my life as a dissenter (PDF). London: Andrei Deutsch. ISBN 978-0-233-97023-3. Arhivirano iz originala (PDF) 2013-05-01. g. Pristupljeno 2015-12-04.
- Boukovsky, Vladimir (1971). Une nouvelle maladie mentale en URSS: l'opposition [A new mental illness in the USSR: the opposition] (na jeziku: francuski). Paris: Le Seuil. ISBN 2020025272.
- Bukowski, Wladimir (1971). UdSSR. Opposition. Eine neue Geisteskrankheit in der Sowjetunion? Eine Dokumentation von W. Bukowskij [The USSR. Opposition. A new mental illness in the Soviet Union? Documentation by V. Bukovsky] (na jeziku: nemački). München: Carl Hanser Verlag. ISBN 3-446-11571-4.
- Bukovskij, Vladimir (1972). Una nuova malattia mentale in Urss: l'opposizione [A new mental illness in the USSR: opposition] (na jeziku: italijanski). Milan: Etas Kompass.
- Bukovsky, Vladimir (1972). Una nueva enfermedad mental en la U.R.S.S.: la oposición [A new mental illness in the USSR: opposition] (na jeziku: španski). México: Lasser Press.
- Bukovsky, Vladimir; Gluzman, Semyon (January—February 1975a). „Posobie po psihiatrii dlя inakomыslящih” [A manual on psychiatry for dissidents] (PDF). Hronika zaщitы prav v SSSR [Chronicle of defense of rights in the USSR] (na jeziku: ruski) (13): 36—61. Proverite vrednost paramet(a)ra za datum:
|date=
(pomoć) The work in Russian was also published in: Korotenko, Ada; Alikina, Nataliя (2002). Sovetskaя psihiatriя: Zabluždeniя i umыsel. Kiev: Izdatelьstvo «Sfera». str. 197—218. ISBN 978-966-7841-36-2. The work in English was published in: Bloch, Sidney; Reddaway, Peter (1977). Russia's political hospitals: the abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union. Victor Gollancz Ltd. str. 419—440. ISBN 978-0-575-02318-5. - Bukovsky, Vladimir; Gluzman, Semyon (Winter—Spring 1975b). „A manual on psychiatry for dissidents”. Survey: A Journal of East and West Studies. 21 (1): 180—199. Proverite vrednost paramet(a)ra za datum:
|date=
(pomoć) - Bukovsky, Vladimir; Gluzman, Semyon (1975c). A manual of psychiatry for political dissidents. London: Amnesty International. OCLC 872337790.
- Bukovsky, Vladimir; Gluzman, Semyon (1975d). „A dissident's guide to psychiatry”. A Chronicle of Human Rights in the USSR. New York: Kronika Press (13): 31—57.
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Vidi još
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